Chapter 7: Human Memory

Definition and Nature of Memory

• Memory: Refers to the process of retaining and recalling information over time.
• Key Processes: Retain and recall information for practical application.
• Examples: Remembering phone numbers, mathematical formulas.

Stages of Memory

1. Encoding
   • Process of recording information for the first time.
   • Example: Learning and understanding a new chapter.
2. Storage
   • Retaining information over time for reuse.
3. Retrieval
   • Bringing stored information to awareness for tasks like problem-solving or exams.

Models of Memory

• Information Processing Approach: Memory seen as similar to computer systems.
• Stage Model (Atkinson and Shiffrin, 1968)
  • Sensory Memory: Large capacity, short duration (<1 second).
  • Short Term Memory (STM): Holds small amount of information for about 30 seconds.
    • Primarily encoded acoustically.
  • Long Term Memory (LTM): Vast capacity, permanent store.
    • Encoded semantically (in terms of meaning).

Control Processes in Memory

• Selective Attention: Determines what moves from sensory to STM.
• Maintenance Rehearsal: Repetition to retain information in STM.
• Chunking: Expanding STM capacity by breaking information into chunks.
• Elaborative Rehearsal: Connecting new info to existing knowledge in LTM.

Levels of Processing

• Shallow Processing: Structural and phonetic analysis of information.
• Deep Processing: Understanding the meaning for better retention.

Types of Long-Term Memory

• Declarative Memory
  • Episodic Memory: Personal life events (emotional).
  • Semantic Memory: General knowledge (facts, concepts).
• Procedural Memory: Skills and tasks (e.g., riding a bicycle).

Additional Memory Types

• Flashbulb Memories: Detailed memories of surprising events.
• Autobiographical Memory: Personal life history.
• Implicit Memory: Unconscious memory influencing behavior.

Forgetting

• Ebbinghaus's Curve of Forgetting: Rapid forgetting in first hours, then slows.
• Theories of Forgetting
  • Trace Decay: Memory traces fade over time if not used (disuse theory).
  • Interference Theory: Competing memories interfere with recall.
    • Proactive Interference: Old affects new.
    • Retroactive Interference: New affects old.
  • Retrieval Failure: Inability to access memory due to lack of cues.

Enhancing Memory

• Mnemonics: Memory aids using images and organization.
  • Keyword Method: Associating foreign language words with known words.
  • Method of Loci: Visualizing items in familiar locations.
• Organization: Arranging information into chunks.
• First Letter Technique: Using initials to create memorable acronyms.
• Deep Processing: Understanding meaning deeply.
• Minimizing Interference: Vary study subjects to avoid information overlap.
• PQRS Method: Preview, Question, Read, Self-recitation, Test for study enhancement.

This chapter provides an overview of how human memory operates, including the processes of encoding, storage, and retrieval, various types of memory, theories of forgetting, and strategies for memory enhancement. Understanding these concepts is crucial for effective learning and memory retention.