Understanding Human Memory Processes

Hi everyone, welcome back to the channel and today we will be starting with the 7th chapter for class 11th psychology which is the human memory. So now talking in very basic terms what is memory? Memory is the memory of human beings. We remember information, store it so that we can use it later, retrieve it, recall it. So we follow this whole memory procedure of human beings. so moving on with the definition what is the nature of memory so memory refers to retaining and recalling information over a period of time how can we information could retain cut the hair of the lawn cut the hair or say up in memory system is so cut it there or fit could stand to about hummus information could recall cut the hair but this up me memory may up me awareness muscle a key I think it or for us could put practical application you use cut the hair So these two basic hours of memory are retained and recalled information and this stretches for a period of time. So memory refers to retaining and recalling information over a period of time depending upon the nature of cognitive task you are required to perform. We remember the telephone numbers of our family members, our friends, we remember so many numbers. It is not that we forget them immediately after remembering them. we never remember them later some numbers are such that we always remember so this is an example of memory we remember those numbers store them and later we are able to recall them retrieve them and practically use those numbers we have formed math formulas techniques of addition subtraction we always remember them because we store them in our memory well so these are some basic examples of memory Now, memory is conceptualized as a process consisting of three independent though interrelated stages. So, the process or the procedure of memory follows three stages. These are encoding, storage and retrieval. So, let's go on learning about each of these stages one by one. What is encoding? Encoding is the first stage which refers to the process by which information is recorded and registered for the first time. so that it becomes usable by our memories In encoding, we basically record information for the first time in our brain You have to read this chapter for your exam, Human Memory You are reading it with me, you are understanding it This is the first time you are recording this information You are understanding it, you are reading it Then when you sit to read it, you will learn it So this is the encoding process in which we register the information, record it and learn it So next It is then represented in a way so that it can be processed further. We encode it so well, we learn it so well that we can use this information further. Now, storage is the second stage of memory. What is storage? It refers to the process through which information is retained and held over a period of time. Storage means to put that information in our mind, to fit it forever so that we can use it over a period of time. So information is retained in it and stored in the mind and kept in a way so that it can be reused after some time So this is storage What is the third stage of memory? Retrieval Retrieval refers to bringing the stored information to his or her awareness so that it can be used for performing various cognitive tasks such as problem solving or decision making Now you have learned this chapter, encoded it well stored in your mind and then came your performance time i.e. exam time now you have to answer the question and answers of this chapter properly in that exam so now you will retrieve that information, bring it back to your consciousness, awareness you will remember it, in a way you will repeat all that learnt information so that you can solve the problem, take decisions or answer the questions properly in that exam you will recall and retrieve that information. So these are our three basic processes through which human beings process their memory. Now we have an approach known as the information processing approach under which we will study the stage model. Now initially it was thought that memory is the capacity to store all information that we acquire through learning and experience. Earlier it was a basic norm that memory means our capacity. Human mind has the capacity to store as much information as it has learned or experienced in its life. But now these fundamentals, these thoughts have changed a little. But with the advent of computer, human memory came to be seen as a system that processes information in the same way as a computer does but as computers developed and scientific advancement took place then human memory started looking like a system that as a computer processes its entire system, so does human memory through which human beings remember things so both the human memory and computer register, store and manipulate large amount of information and apps on the basis of the outcome of such manipulation. We human beings and computers also register information, store it, manipulate it so that we can use it in performance, problem solving, decision making. Now this analogy led to the development of the first model of memory which was proposed by Atkinson and Shiffrin in 1968. It is known as the stage model. Now we have to remember the name of the model and the name of the researchers because they are taken in the exam. Who gave the stage model? Atkins and Anshapra in 1968. Now what does the stage model say? There are three stages of memory systems. Sensory memory, short term memory and long term memory. Now we will move on reading about all these three systems and it also gives you a good question. That how is information processed through sensory, short term memory and long term memory? What is a sensory memory? sensory memory now the incoming information first enters the sensory memory sensory memory sensory memory has a large capacity however it is a very short duration that is less than a second sensory memory information store karti hai aur yeh duration less than one second hoti hai it is a memory system that registers information from each of the senses with reasonable accuracy hum gaane tulte hai to hum lyrics kitni jaldi yaad kar lete hai why? because our ears are able to listen and they tend to store that song its lyrics perfectly fit in our mind hum kuch dekhte hai to wo bhi hume aage yaad rehta hai to yeh sensory memory hoti hai wo starry information jo humare sense organs collect environments iconic visual or echoic means auditory sensory register human and repeat again now sensory information how can it be? iconic means visually collected or echoic which is auditory in nature what is the short term memory information that is attended to enters the second memory store called the short term memory which holds small amount of information for a brief period of time usually for 30 seconds or less whatever information we collect from our sensor if we pay attention to it if we pay attention to that information then it goes to our second memory system i.e. short term memory now short term memory holds information for 30 seconds or less duration now atkinson and shifrin proposed that information in STM is primarily encoded acoustically that is in terms of sound and unless rehearsed continuously it may get lost from the STM in less than 30 seconds now this STM register the information for less than 30 seconds and if this information is not repeated or rehearsed properly then it can fade so for this rehearsal is very important that's why information is shortened term memory main jai ki next we move on to long term memory a long term memory it has a vast capacity and it is a permanent storehouse of all information aapko koi aisey cheez bhot important aspect apni life ka agar itni clearly yaad hai na so you need to understand that that form of memory is present in your long term memory why because the long term memory is a permanent storehouse of all information it has been shown that once any information enters the long-term memory store it is never forgotten because it gets encoded semantically that is in terms of the meaning that any information carries The memory that goes into the long-term memory system always remembers us Why? Because we don't write it down, we understand the meaning of things in it You know that's why we should always understand things before reading them, not write them down because when we learn something from meaning making it always fits in our long term memory so that is what long term memory is all about now we have a question here that how does information travel from one store to another How information travels from one memory system to another memory system Now, Atkinson and Shiffrin proposed the notion of control processes Control processes, they function to monitor the flow of information through various memory stores So, only that information which is attended to enters the STM from the sensory registers And in that sense, selective attention, as you have already read in Chapter 5, is the first control process that decides what will travel from sensory registers to STM if you want to send any information to STM from sensory registers then as I told you before you have to pay attention to that information you have to pay attention to that information then only that information will be able to go from first memory model to second stage so selective attention is a control process which determines what information will be sent to STM will go from sensory memory to short term memory. Next Control Process STM then sets into motion another control process of maintenance rehearsal to retain the information for as much time as required. Now what are maintenance rehearsals? These kinds of rehearsals simply maintain information through repetition and when such repetitions discontinue, the information is lost. When we read history, we have to remember one after the other events. So we usually follow the same technique, you too, me too, everyone follows the same technique that we repeat that question and answer again and again. That is what maintenance rehearsal is. And when this repetition stops, when we have not read that answer for a long time or even recalled that answer, it gets discontinued. That information goes away from our short-term memory. So maintenance rehearsal tells the name only. that we keep that information in our mind for a very short time we rehearse it for a short time so that it sits in our mind but if this rehearsal is stopped then that information can vanish anywhere so maintenance rehearsals are our second control process another control process which operates in STM to expand its capacity is called chunking now this is a little useful control process how? now through chunking it is possible to expand the capacity of SCM which is otherwise 7 plus minus 2. Chunking means breaking a big aspect into small parts so that it becomes easy to remember. So this expands the capacity of our short-term memory. And 7 plus minus 2 is basically a number which signifies that in short-term memory either 7 numbers or 9 numbers or minus 2 means 5 numbers we can remember in our short-term memory. Suppose I have a number, this big. Now we will break it. Separate it from 1947, 1949 and 2004. Now we have done chunking. We have broken this big number into small parts. Now how will we remember this information? I remembered 1947 as India became independent. 1949 as the year when the Indian Constitution was adopted. The year when the Tsunami hit the coastal regions of India and South East Asian countries So I broke this big number into small chunks And then with some events Systematically, semantically I remembered it by understanding its meaning So this increases my short term memory capacity Next From the STM Information enters the long term memory through elaborative rehearsals Now in STM long term memory Information through the process of elaborative rehearsal. Now what are elaborative rehearsals? Acts against maintenance rehearsals which are carried through silent or vocal repetition. The rehearsal attempts to connect the to be retained information to the already existing information in long term memory. Now in elaborative rehearsals, we understand the meaning of information and connect it with the things that we already know. Now I have a word in front of me, humanity. What did I relate to humanity? I remembered the name of freedom fighters, I remembered the name of some good divorced people, all these names which I am able to retain, recall, by saying that one word, humanity, all this is my already existing memory, with which I am storing new information, connecting it. So when we connect new information with already known information, we find out some meaning, that is what elaborative rehearsals are all about. So, now a question also comes in your exam which is how are maintenance rehearsals different from elaborative rehearsals and this can come as a three marker. So, you need to prepare this question very well. Now we have another model known as the levels of process. So the levels of processing was proposed by Craig and Lockhart in 1972. So this view suggests that the processing of any new information relates to the manner in which it is perceived, analyzed and understood which in turn determines the extent to which it will eventually be retained. Whenever we process any new information, how do we understand it, analyze it, find out its meaning and then learn it? All these processes determine and influence the time and time we remember that information. So these are the levels of processing, a small crux. Now it is possible to analyze the incoming information at two levels. So we process the information at two levels. One may analyze in it terms of its physical or structural features. For example, one might attend only to the shape of letters in a word say cat. In spite of whether the word is written in capital or small letters or the color of the ink in which it is written. We sometimes focus on one aspect only. This word is cat. I am ignoring other things like capital letter, small letter or color of ink. My attention is only on the shape of these letters. So this is basically a processing of information based on structural and physical features At an intermediate level, one might consider and attend to the phonetic sounds that are attached to the letters and therefore the structural features are transformed into at least one meaningful word Say a cat has three specific lids Now I will focus on the phonetics of that word that what are the sounds in it, how to pronounce them So this is an intermediate level processing Now I'm sorry I said two levels but processing is at more than one level i.e. three levels Now analysing information at these two levels produces memory that is fragile and is likely to decay quickly Now the way we process information at these two levels, it can decay quickly, we can say that information But there is a third and deepest level on which we process information In order to ensure that the information is retained for a longer period, it is important that it gets analyzed and understood in terms of its meaning. The same thing, if we learn something from understanding the meaning, it stays in our mind for a longer duration. For instance, you may think of a cat as an animal that has furs, four legs, a tail and is a mammal. So you can also invoke an image of a cat and connect that image with your experiences. So this is the first example of a cat that has furs. This is how information stays in our mind for a long time To sum up, analyzing information in terms of its structural and phonetic features amounts to shallower processing while encoding it in terms of the meaning it carries which we call in other words Semantic Encoding is the deepest processing level that leads to memory that resists forgetting considerably This is the deepest processing level that resists forgetting If we learn something like this, we can understand the meaning of the word and not forget it too soon. We now move on to the next topic which is Types of Long Term Memory. Now, one major classification of the LTM is the Declarative Memory and the Procedural Memory. What is the declarative memory? All information pertaining to facts, names, dates. For example, there are three wheels of a rickshaw. India became independent on 15th August. Frog is an amphibian and your friend and you share the same name all these are declarative memory in this we have meanings, names, facts, names, dates all these information are stored now what is procedural memory? procedural memory refers to memories relating to procedures for accomplishing various tasks and skills whatever we have remembered in the form of a procedure in life that is procedural memory like food If you learn to make, then you follow a procedure. So that is a part of our procedural memory. Like how to ride a bicycle, how to make tea and play basketball. Now, whatever is the part of the declarator memory, we can explain it verbally. But we cannot explain procedural memory. If someone asks you how you learned to ride a cycle, then how do you tell the person in front of you that I did this, I did that. It is not possible. Procedural memory can be used orally explain karna is not possible. Whereas declarative memory only consists of facts which can be explained verbally very easily. Now, Talving has proposed another classification and has suggested that the declarative memory Now, two parts of declarative memory are episodic memory and semantic memory. Episodic memory contains the biographical details of our life. Means, the experiences we face in life, the episodes we face, that is what forms our episodic memory. So, it is the biographical details of our lives. Memories relating to our personal life experience constitute the episodic memory and because of this, its contents are generally emotional in nature. Like how did you feel when you stood first in your class? Or how angry was your friend? And what did he say when you did not fulfill a promise? So, these are all episodic memories. Now, semantic memory is the memory of general awareness and knowledge. So, semantic memory is very simple. Means our general knowledge. Like math formulas. New Delhi is the capital of India. Elephant's spelling is wrong. Elephant's spelling is right. The thing we remember based on the meaning of the thing is our semantic memory. Now we have this box here which we have to read which is the long term memory classification. So in this we will read about some other types of memory. So flash bulb memories. Now these are memories of events that are very arousing and surprising. Now these memories are quite detailed. Now these memories are like a photo taken with an advanced model camera. Do you remember memories so well that you remember it today and after 10 years that memory is intact in your mind? It is so clear that you clicked a picture with an advanced camera. So see highlighting details might lead to deeper levels of processing as well as offer more cues for retrieval. So these are the memories whose small details are also highlighted and retrieval cues are also many. So what do you mean by you are quick? you got a small clue related to that thing and that memory will come back in your mind now flashbulb memories are basically those memories which are very emotional which are very exciting, surprising or very sad that's why we remember those memories so well next autobiographical memory autobiographical memories are our personal memory now for instance no memories are reported pertaining to early childhood during the first 4 to 5 years This is called Childhood Amnesia. When we are at the age of 5 years, we don't remember the 5 years of our life at all. Even if we try to remember, we don't remember at all. After 5 years, a child gains consciousness that I am this, this is my family, this is my circle, this is my life. So this phenomenon, when a child does not remember anything until the age of 5 years, we call this phenomenon Childhood Amnesia. there is a dramatic increase in the frequency of memories just after early adulthood that is in the 20s after reaching the age of 20s the frequency of remembering memories increases now what is implicit memory? recent studies have indicated that many of the memories remain outside the conscious awareness of a person implicit memory is a kind of memory that a person is not aware of Implicit memories are those memories which we don't even know that exist with us. It is a part of our memory system. It is a memory that is retrieved automatically. Something that you suddenly remember and then you think that I didn't know that I would remember this too. So this is implicit memory. Nevertheless, implicit memories do influence our behavior. Implicit memories also influence our behavior a lot. So these were some extra long-term memories, you can read them. Next topic which we have is the nature and causes of forgetting. What is forgetting? It means forgetting a memory or learned information. So the first systematic attempt to understand the nature of forgetting was made by Hermann Emminger who memorized lists of nonsense syllables like CVC, NOK or SEP and then measured the number of trials he took. to relearn the same list at varying time intervals. So, the people who talked about nature of forgetting were homonyming words. They learnt a list of nonsense syllables. What are nonsense syllables? Words that have no meaning. Like CBC, NOK, SCP. They made a long list of 12 to 15 words and they kept on learning it. Words that have no meaning, they kept on learning that list and keep noting the number of trials they have taken to learn the list in a definite time interval gap so now we have this graph So if we understand this graph, so the rate of forgetting is maximum in the first 9 hours, particularly during the first hour. We can forget any information in the first hour itself, it has a lot of chances. And the rate of forgetting is maximum in the first 9 hours. After 9 hours, the rate slows down and not much is forgotten even after many days. So this is basically Ebbinghaus'curve of forgetting which we have done a little analysis. Thank you for watching! theories hai forgetting ke liye so number one we have is forgetting due to trace decay trace decay ka ek aur naam hai disuse theory it is the earliest theory of forgetting now the basic assumption that this theory follows is that memory leads to modification in the central nervous system which is akin to physical changes in the brain called memory traces ab hum kuch learn karte hain na toh hamare central nervous system mein cns mein jo hamare brain hai ek tarah se changes happen in it which we call memory traces now when these memory traces are not used for a long time when we don't use that information again and again don't recall those traces again and again then they fade away and they become unavailable now this theory has been proved inadequate on several grounds this theory has also been criticized now if forgetting takes place because memory traces decay due to disuse then people who go to sleep are after memorizing should forget more compared to those who remain awake simply because there is no way in which memory traces can be put to use during sleep. Now when disused theory says that if we don't use those memory traces, then it should happen that the human beings who sleep after studying, after learning, they forget everything. Because we don't use those memory traces while sleeping, our mind gets relaxed while sleeping. So basically they should forget those traces, that information Not those who stay awake after remembering the information So what did the results show? Those who remain awake after memorizing show greater forgetting than those who sleep So basically those who stay awake after remembering the information They forget the information faster Not those who sleep after learning the information This is why the disused theory is criticized Now we have another theory, forgetting due to interference. This theory assumes that learning and memorizing involve forming of association between items and once acquired, these associations remain intact in the memory. So forgetting due to interference theory says that we learn the information by associating it, by making connections, we learn that information. Just like I told you earlier that already at least information to new information, then learning becomes stronger. So, in this way, we human beings keep learning, memorizing and associating information. But, when does interference come? Interference comes about at a time of retrieval, when these various sets of associations compete with each other for retrieval. Now, I have learned history and science together. And, let's say, I have learned a new language. I also learnt chemistry. So basically I learnt all the theory subjects one by one. Now I have to remember an answer in the history exam. I have to recall an answer. So all this information will compete with each other to come into my consciousness. Interference will be created because I will be remembering the answer of chemistry in the history paper and geography in the chemistry paper. So this is a... retrieval problem ho jaati hai jab ye saare associations aapis mein compete karte hai so now there are two kinds of interference interference can be proactive matlab what you have learnt earlier interferes with the recall of your subsequent learning jo humne pehle yaad kiya hai wo aage wali learning mein interfere karti hai usse bolte hai proactive interference aur jo humne pehle yaad kiya hai retroactive matlab what you have learnt earlier It's you face difficulty in recalling what you have learnt earlier because of learning of a new material We learn new material so we forget the old learning and information These are two types of interferences Next, forgetting due to retrieval failure Now, we are not able to retrieve some information Why? Because retrieval cues are absent We don't get any clue We think hope nahin mil paati, jiski through wo information click ho jaye aur humari memory mein aa jaye. Retrieval clues are aids which help us in recovering information stored in the memory. Now this view was advanced by Talvi and his associate who carried out several experiments. to show that contents of memory may become inaccessible either due to absence or inappropriateness of retrieval cues that are available or employed at the time of recall so basically these are the memories that you must have seen sometime or the more we try something happens that we can't remember why because we can't get any clue to remember that information so that information cannot reach our awareness so that is what forgetting due to retrieval failure. category names in this example act as retrieval cues. category names ke alawa the physical context which you learn also provide effective retrieval cues. am jaisay apple hai to uska maine apne dimaag mein ek drawer banaya hawa hai ek mental drawer create kiya hawa hai ki apple matlak fruits. to ye basically categories ke naam hai jinket through hum bhot achhise cheezo ko yaad kar sakte hai. apel banana I have related Pomegranate Peer to Fruits It is in the Fruits category So I can quickly remove that information from my mind and bring it to my awareness So in this way the names of the categories act like retrieval cues Now how can we enhance our memory? How can we improve our memory? There is a question to be formulated from our exam point of view Memory can be enhanced by the use of mnemonics. They help to improve your memory. So, there are two types of mnemonics. Mnemonics using images. Now, mnemonics using images require that you create vivid and interacting images of the material you wish to remember. We make images of something in our brain, right? So, we remember that thing quickly. I said apple, you made an apple image in your brain. I said pomegranate, you made an image of pomegranate. So this is basically a trick through which we remember information Now the two most prominent non-anemonic devices which make interesting use of images are the keyword method and the method of loci What is keyword method? Suppose you want to learn words of any foreign language Now in keyword method at English word Now the assumption we follow here that you know the English language That sounds similar to the word of a foreign language is identified So suppose you want to learn Spanish and you you have related a Spanish word with a word of English language which both sound similar knowing the fact that you already know the English language now if you want to remember the Spanish word for duck as pato you may choose pot as the keyword which is an English word and then evoke the images of keyword and the target word and imagine them as interacting so basically the word we have to learn is We have related it to an English word which we already know Connected both the information, made an image and learned it You can imagine a duck in a pot full of water So this method of learning words of a foreign language is much superior Compared to any kind of rote memorization Meaning, there is a better way to remember words by writing a letter Now what is the method of loci? In order to use the method of loci Items you want to remember are placed as objects arranged in a physical space in the form of visual images you have to remember a list of items and a gross list of items so you have to keep that item in a physical space like a visual image now this method is particularly helpful in remembering items in a serial order now let's look at this example here now if you want to remember bread eggs tomatoes and soap on your way to the market You may visualize a loaf of bread and eggs placed in your kitchen, tomatoes kept on a table and soap in the bathroom. So when you enter the market, all you need to do is to take a mental walk along the route from your kitchen to the bathroom recalling all the items of your shopping list in a sequence. So basically, we have to remember all the things which we have to remember in a serial order list. We have to place them in a known or familiar physical context and learn. So this is my method of locating. Now, mnemonics do using organization. Organization means, to fit or organize any information through a certain order of the material you want to remember. So organization refers to imposing certain order on the material you want to remember. Now, chunking. We have already read that in chunking, several smaller units are combined to form large chunks. so now it is important to discover some organization principles which can link smaller units so apart from being a control mechanism to increase the capacity of short term memory chunking can be used to improve memory as so it is both a short term memory process and a memory improvement aspect first letter technique now in order to employ the first letter technique you need to pick up the first letter of each word you want to remember and arrange them to form a word or sentence just the colors on the rainbow both common here i miss it as remember violet indigo blue green yellow orange and red so in sorry colors first word It is easy to remember the colours of the rainbow. Now, in such an approach, emphasis is laid on applying knowledge about memory processes to the task of memory improvement. So, through mnemonics, we improve our memory. Now we should always engage in deep level processing while learning something. Now Craig and Lockhart have demonstrated that processing information in terms of the meaning that they convey leads to better memory as compared to attending to the surface features. It is better to understand the meaning of the information rather than to understand it from the top. Deep processing would involve asking as many questions relating to the information as possible, considering its meaning and examining its relationships to the facts you already know. So that is what the whole process of deep level processing is. We should always try to minimize interference. We know that interference is a major cause of forgetting. You should try to avoid it as much as possible. We know that maximum interference is when we remember similar materials in a sequence. So we should learn the subjects in such a way that they are not connected to each other. If you study Maths first, then study some theory subjects, then study some language, then such information will not compete with each other and retrieval will be easy. So always arrange the study material in a varied and different form. Give yourself enough retrieval cues, identify them, and link parts of the study material to these cubes. So, always take clues and read by connecting things. Now, Thomas and Robinson have developed another strategy to help students in remembering more, which they call the method of PQRS. Now, you can use this PQRS funda daily in your studies. P means Preview, Q means Question, R means Read, S means Self-Recitation and T means Test. What is Preview? it refers to giving a cursory look at the chapter and familiarizing itself with the contents if you turn pages of a chapter and read the headings then you get a little idea of what are the topics in this chapter and you get familiar with them question means raising questions and seeking answers from the lesson if you think that this is the topic in this chapter then it will be like this now I will find it in the book This is our second step. Now we start reading and look for the answers of the questions you have raised. Now after reading the fourth step, we try to rewrite what you have read. We recite or rewrite the content we have read so that we can do our fourth step, self-recitation. And in the end, we always take tests so that we can understand that how much have we been able to understand. So these are our five steps of PKVARASTI. which help in improving the human memory given by Thomas and Robin. So that was all for this chapter. I hope you've understood the concepts well. Thank you so much.

We remember information, store it so that we can use it later, retrieve it, recall it. So we follow this whole memory procedure of human beings. so moving on with the definition what is the nature of memory so memory refers to retaining and recalling information over a period of time how can we information could retain cut the hair of the lawn cut the hair or say up in memory system is so cut it there or fit could stand to about hummus information could recall cut the hair but this up me memory may up me awareness muscle a key I think it or for us could put practical application you use cut the hair So these two basic hours of memory are retained and recalled information and this stretches for a period of time. So memory refers to retaining and recalling information over a period of time depending upon the nature of cognitive task you are required to perform.

We remember the telephone numbers of our family members, our friends, we remember so many numbers. It is not that we forget them immediately after remembering them. we never remember them later some numbers are such that we always remember so this is an example of memory we remember those numbers store them and later we are able to recall them retrieve them and practically use those numbers we have formed math formulas techniques of addition subtraction we always remember them because we store them in our memory well so these are some basic examples of memory Now, memory is conceptualized as a process consisting of three independent though interrelated stages. So, the process or the procedure of memory follows three stages. These are encoding, storage and retrieval.

So, let's go on learning about each of these stages one by one. What is encoding? Encoding is the first stage which refers to the process by which information is recorded and registered for the first time. so that it becomes usable by our memories In encoding, we basically record information for the first time in our brain You have to read this chapter for your exam, Human Memory You are reading it with me, you are understanding it This is the first time you are recording this information You are understanding it, you are reading it Then when you sit to read it, you will learn it So this is the encoding process in which we register the information, record it and learn it So next It is then represented in a way so that it can be processed further. We encode it so well, we learn it so well that we can use this information further.

Now, storage is the second stage of memory. What is storage? It refers to the process through which information is retained and held over a period of time.

Storage means to put that information in our mind, to fit it forever so that we can use it over a period of time. So information is retained in it and stored in the mind and kept in a way so that it can be reused after some time So this is storage What is the third stage of memory? Retrieval Retrieval refers to bringing the stored information to his or her awareness so that it can be used for performing various cognitive tasks such as problem solving or decision making Now you have learned this chapter, encoded it well stored in your mind and then came your performance time i.e. exam time now you have to answer the question and answers of this chapter properly in that exam so now you will retrieve that information, bring it back to your consciousness, awareness you will remember it, in a way you will repeat all that learnt information so that you can solve the problem, take decisions or answer the questions properly in that exam you will recall and retrieve that information. So these are our three basic processes through which human beings process their memory.

Now we have an approach known as the information processing approach under which we will study the stage model. Now initially it was thought that memory is the capacity to store all information that we acquire through learning and experience. Earlier it was a basic norm that memory means our capacity.

Human mind has the capacity to store as much information as it has learned or experienced in its life. But now these fundamentals, these thoughts have changed a little. But with the advent of computer, human memory came to be seen as a system that processes information in the same way as a computer does but as computers developed and scientific advancement took place then human memory started looking like a system that as a computer processes its entire system, so does human memory through which human beings remember things so both the human memory and computer register, store and manipulate large amount of information and apps on the basis of the outcome of such manipulation. We human beings and computers also register information, store it, manipulate it so that we can use it in performance, problem solving, decision making. Now this analogy led to the development of the first model of memory which was proposed by Atkinson and Shiffrin in 1968. It is known as the stage model.

Now we have to remember the name of the model and the name of the researchers because they are taken in the exam. Who gave the stage model? Atkins and Anshapra in 1968. Now what does the stage model say? There are three stages of memory systems.

Sensory memory, short term memory and long term memory. Now we will move on reading about all these three systems and it also gives you a good question. That how is information processed through sensory, short term memory and long term memory? What is a sensory memory? sensory memory now the incoming information first enters the sensory memory sensory memory sensory memory has a large capacity however it is a very short duration that is less than a second sensory memory information store karti hai aur yeh duration less than one second hoti hai it is a memory system that registers information from each of the senses with reasonable accuracy hum gaane tulte hai to hum lyrics kitni jaldi yaad kar lete hai why?

because our ears are able to listen and they tend to store that song its lyrics perfectly fit in our mind hum kuch dekhte hai to wo bhi hume aage yaad rehta hai to yeh sensory memory hoti hai wo starry information jo humare sense organs collect environments iconic visual or echoic means auditory sensory register human and repeat again now sensory information how can it be? iconic means visually collected or echoic which is auditory in nature what is the short term memory information that is attended to enters the second memory store called the short term memory which holds small amount of information for a brief period of time usually for 30 seconds or less whatever information we collect from our sensor if we pay attention to it if we pay attention to that information then it goes to our second memory system i.e. short term memory now short term memory holds information for 30 seconds or less duration now atkinson and shifrin proposed that information in STM is primarily encoded acoustically that is in terms of sound and unless rehearsed continuously it may get lost from the STM in less than 30 seconds now this STM register the information for less than 30 seconds and if this information is not repeated or rehearsed properly then it can fade so for this rehearsal is very important that's why information is shortened term memory main jai ki next we move on to long term memory a long term memory it has a vast capacity and it is a permanent storehouse of all information aapko koi aisey cheez bhot important aspect apni life ka agar itni clearly yaad hai na so you need to understand that that form of memory is present in your long term memory why because the long term memory is a permanent storehouse of all information it has been shown that once any information enters the long-term memory store it is never forgotten because it gets encoded semantically that is in terms of the meaning that any information carries The memory that goes into the long-term memory system always remembers us Why? Because we don't write it down, we understand the meaning of things in it You know that's why we should always understand things before reading them, not write them down because when we learn something from meaning making it always fits in our long term memory so that is what long term memory is all about now we have a question here that how does information travel from one store to another How information travels from one memory system to another memory system Now, Atkinson and Shiffrin proposed the notion of control processes Control processes, they function to monitor the flow of information through various memory stores So, only that information which is attended to enters the STM from the sensory registers And in that sense, selective attention, as you have already read in Chapter 5, is the first control process that decides what will travel from sensory registers to STM if you want to send any information to STM from sensory registers then as I told you before you have to pay attention to that information you have to pay attention to that information then only that information will be able to go from first memory model to second stage so selective attention is a control process which determines what information will be sent to STM will go from sensory memory to short term memory. Next Control Process STM then sets into motion another control process of maintenance rehearsal to retain the information for as much time as required. Now what are maintenance rehearsals?

These kinds of rehearsals simply maintain information through repetition and when such repetitions discontinue, the information is lost. When we read history, we have to remember one after the other events. So we usually follow the same technique, you too, me too, everyone follows the same technique that we repeat that question and answer again and again. That is what maintenance rehearsal is. And when this repetition stops, when we have not read that answer for a long time or even recalled that answer, it gets discontinued.

That information goes away from our short-term memory. So maintenance rehearsal tells the name only. that we keep that information in our mind for a very short time we rehearse it for a short time so that it sits in our mind but if this rehearsal is stopped then that information can vanish anywhere so maintenance rehearsals are our second control process another control process which operates in STM to expand its capacity is called chunking now this is a little useful control process how?

now through chunking it is possible to expand the capacity of SCM which is otherwise 7 plus minus 2. Chunking means breaking a big aspect into small parts so that it becomes easy to remember. So this expands the capacity of our short-term memory. And 7 plus minus 2 is basically a number which signifies that in short-term memory either 7 numbers or 9 numbers or minus 2 means 5 numbers we can remember in our short-term memory. Suppose I have a number, this big. Now we will break it.

Separate it from 1947, 1949 and 2004. Now we have done chunking. We have broken this big number into small parts. Now how will we remember this information?

I remembered 1947 as India became independent. 1949 as the year when the Indian Constitution was adopted. The year when the Tsunami hit the coastal regions of India and South East Asian countries So I broke this big number into small chunks And then with some events Systematically, semantically I remembered it by understanding its meaning So this increases my short term memory capacity Next From the STM Information enters the long term memory through elaborative rehearsals Now in STM long term memory Information through the process of elaborative rehearsal. Now what are elaborative rehearsals? Acts against maintenance rehearsals which are carried through silent or vocal repetition.

The rehearsal attempts to connect the to be retained information to the already existing information in long term memory. Now in elaborative rehearsals, we understand the meaning of information and connect it with the things that we already know. Now I have a word in front of me, humanity.

What did I relate to humanity? I remembered the name of freedom fighters, I remembered the name of some good divorced people, all these names which I am able to retain, recall, by saying that one word, humanity, all this is my already existing memory, with which I am storing new information, connecting it. So when we connect new information with already known information, we find out some meaning, that is what elaborative rehearsals are all about. So, now a question also comes in your exam which is how are maintenance rehearsals different from elaborative rehearsals and this can come as a three marker.

So, you need to prepare this question very well. Now we have another model known as the levels of process. So the levels of processing was proposed by Craig and Lockhart in 1972. So this view suggests that the processing of any new information relates to the manner in which it is perceived, analyzed and understood which in turn determines the extent to which it will eventually be retained. Whenever we process any new information, how do we understand it, analyze it, find out its meaning and then learn it?

All these processes determine and influence the time and time we remember that information. So these are the levels of processing, a small crux. Now it is possible to analyze the incoming information at two levels. So we process the information at two levels.

One may analyze in it terms of its physical or structural features. For example, one might attend only to the shape of letters in a word say cat. In spite of whether the word is written in capital or small letters or the color of the ink in which it is written.

We sometimes focus on one aspect only. This word is cat. I am ignoring other things like capital letter, small letter or color of ink.

My attention is only on the shape of these letters. So this is basically a processing of information based on structural and physical features At an intermediate level, one might consider and attend to the phonetic sounds that are attached to the letters and therefore the structural features are transformed into at least one meaningful word Say a cat has three specific lids Now I will focus on the phonetics of that word that what are the sounds in it, how to pronounce them So this is an intermediate level processing Now I'm sorry I said two levels but processing is at more than one level i.e. three levels Now analysing information at these two levels produces memory that is fragile and is likely to decay quickly Now the way we process information at these two levels, it can decay quickly, we can say that information But there is a third and deepest level on which we process information In order to ensure that the information is retained for a longer period, it is important that it gets analyzed and understood in terms of its meaning. The same thing, if we learn something from understanding the meaning, it stays in our mind for a longer duration. For instance, you may think of a cat as an animal that has furs, four legs, a tail and is a mammal.

So you can also invoke an image of a cat and connect that image with your experiences. So this is the first example of a cat that has furs. This is how information stays in our mind for a long time To sum up, analyzing information in terms of its structural and phonetic features amounts to shallower processing while encoding it in terms of the meaning it carries which we call in other words Semantic Encoding is the deepest processing level that leads to memory that resists forgetting considerably This is the deepest processing level that resists forgetting If we learn something like this, we can understand the meaning of the word and not forget it too soon. We now move on to the next topic which is Types of Long Term Memory.

Now, one major classification of the LTM is the Declarative Memory and the Procedural Memory. What is the declarative memory? All information pertaining to facts, names, dates.

For example, there are three wheels of a rickshaw. India became independent on 15th August. Frog is an amphibian and your friend and you share the same name all these are declarative memory in this we have meanings, names, facts, names, dates all these information are stored now what is procedural memory? procedural memory refers to memories relating to procedures for accomplishing various tasks and skills whatever we have remembered in the form of a procedure in life that is procedural memory like food If you learn to make, then you follow a procedure. So that is a part of our procedural memory.

Like how to ride a bicycle, how to make tea and play basketball. Now, whatever is the part of the declarator memory, we can explain it verbally. But we cannot explain procedural memory.

If someone asks you how you learned to ride a cycle, then how do you tell the person in front of you that I did this, I did that. It is not possible. Procedural memory can be used orally explain karna is not possible. Whereas declarative memory only consists of facts which can be explained verbally very easily. Now, Talving has proposed another classification and has suggested that the declarative memory Now, two parts of declarative memory are episodic memory and semantic memory.

Episodic memory contains the biographical details of our life. Means, the experiences we face in life, the episodes we face, that is what forms our episodic memory. So, it is the biographical details of our lives.

Memories relating to our personal life experience constitute the episodic memory and because of this, its contents are generally emotional in nature. Like how did you feel when you stood first in your class? Or how angry was your friend? And what did he say when you did not fulfill a promise?

So, these are all episodic memories. Now, semantic memory is the memory of general awareness and knowledge. So, semantic memory is very simple. Means our general knowledge. Like math formulas.

New Delhi is the capital of India. Elephant's spelling is wrong. Elephant's spelling is right. The thing we remember based on the meaning of the thing is our semantic memory.

Now we have this box here which we have to read which is the long term memory classification. So in this we will read about some other types of memory. So flash bulb memories. Now these are memories of events that are very arousing and surprising. Now these memories are quite detailed.

Now these memories are like a photo taken with an advanced model camera. Do you remember memories so well that you remember it today and after 10 years that memory is intact in your mind? It is so clear that you clicked a picture with an advanced camera. So see highlighting details might lead to deeper levels of processing as well as offer more cues for retrieval. So these are the memories whose small details are also highlighted and retrieval cues are also many.

So what do you mean by you are quick? you got a small clue related to that thing and that memory will come back in your mind now flashbulb memories are basically those memories which are very emotional which are very exciting, surprising or very sad that's why we remember those memories so well next autobiographical memory autobiographical memories are our personal memory now for instance no memories are reported pertaining to early childhood during the first 4 to 5 years This is called Childhood Amnesia. When we are at the age of 5 years, we don't remember the 5 years of our life at all. Even if we try to remember, we don't remember at all. After 5 years, a child gains consciousness that I am this, this is my family, this is my circle, this is my life.

So this phenomenon, when a child does not remember anything until the age of 5 years, we call this phenomenon Childhood Amnesia. there is a dramatic increase in the frequency of memories just after early adulthood that is in the 20s after reaching the age of 20s the frequency of remembering memories increases now what is implicit memory? recent studies have indicated that many of the memories remain outside the conscious awareness of a person implicit memory is a kind of memory that a person is not aware of Implicit memories are those memories which we don't even know that exist with us.

It is a part of our memory system. It is a memory that is retrieved automatically. Something that you suddenly remember and then you think that I didn't know that I would remember this too.

So this is implicit memory. Nevertheless, implicit memories do influence our behavior. Implicit memories also influence our behavior a lot. So these were some extra long-term memories, you can read them.

Next topic which we have is the nature and causes of forgetting. What is forgetting? It means forgetting a memory or learned information.

So the first systematic attempt to understand the nature of forgetting was made by Hermann Emminger who memorized lists of nonsense syllables like CVC, NOK or SEP and then measured the number of trials he took. to relearn the same list at varying time intervals. So, the people who talked about nature of forgetting were homonyming words. They learnt a list of nonsense syllables. What are nonsense syllables?

Words that have no meaning. Like CBC, NOK, SCP. They made a long list of 12 to 15 words and they kept on learning it. Words that have no meaning, they kept on learning that list and keep noting the number of trials they have taken to learn the list in a definite time interval gap so now we have this graph So if we understand this graph, so the rate of forgetting is maximum in the first 9 hours, particularly during the first hour. We can forget any information in the first hour itself, it has a lot of chances.

And the rate of forgetting is maximum in the first 9 hours. After 9 hours, the rate slows down and not much is forgotten even after many days. So this is basically Ebbinghaus'curve of forgetting which we have done a little analysis.

Thank you for watching! theories hai forgetting ke liye so number one we have is forgetting due to trace decay trace decay ka ek aur naam hai disuse theory it is the earliest theory of forgetting now the basic assumption that this theory follows is that memory leads to modification in the central nervous system which is akin to physical changes in the brain called memory traces ab hum kuch learn karte hain na toh hamare central nervous system mein cns mein jo hamare brain hai ek tarah se changes happen in it which we call memory traces now when these memory traces are not used for a long time when we don't use that information again and again don't recall those traces again and again then they fade away and they become unavailable now this theory has been proved inadequate on several grounds this theory has also been criticized now if forgetting takes place because memory traces decay due to disuse then people who go to sleep are after memorizing should forget more compared to those who remain awake simply because there is no way in which memory traces can be put to use during sleep. Now when disused theory says that if we don't use those memory traces, then it should happen that the human beings who sleep after studying, after learning, they forget everything.

Because we don't use those memory traces while sleeping, our mind gets relaxed while sleeping. So basically they should forget those traces, that information Not those who stay awake after remembering the information So what did the results show? Those who remain awake after memorizing show greater forgetting than those who sleep So basically those who stay awake after remembering the information They forget the information faster Not those who sleep after learning the information This is why the disused theory is criticized Now we have another theory, forgetting due to interference. This theory assumes that learning and memorizing involve forming of association between items and once acquired, these associations remain intact in the memory. So forgetting due to interference theory says that we learn the information by associating it, by making connections, we learn that information.

Just like I told you earlier that already at least information to new information, then learning becomes stronger. So, in this way, we human beings keep learning, memorizing and associating information. But, when does interference come? Interference comes about at a time of retrieval, when these various sets of associations compete with each other for retrieval.

Now, I have learned history and science together. And, let's say, I have learned a new language. I also learnt chemistry.

So basically I learnt all the theory subjects one by one. Now I have to remember an answer in the history exam. I have to recall an answer. So all this information will compete with each other to come into my consciousness.

Interference will be created because I will be remembering the answer of chemistry in the history paper and geography in the chemistry paper. So this is a... retrieval problem ho jaati hai jab ye saare associations aapis mein compete karte hai so now there are two kinds of interference interference can be proactive matlab what you have learnt earlier interferes with the recall of your subsequent learning jo humne pehle yaad kiya hai wo aage wali learning mein interfere karti hai usse bolte hai proactive interference aur jo humne pehle yaad kiya hai retroactive matlab what you have learnt earlier It's you face difficulty in recalling what you have learnt earlier because of learning of a new material We learn new material so we forget the old learning and information These are two types of interferences Next, forgetting due to retrieval failure Now, we are not able to retrieve some information Why? Because retrieval cues are absent We don't get any clue We think hope nahin mil paati, jiski through wo information click ho jaye aur humari memory mein aa jaye.

Retrieval clues are aids which help us in recovering information stored in the memory. Now this view was advanced by Talvi and his associate who carried out several experiments. to show that contents of memory may become inaccessible either due to absence or inappropriateness of retrieval cues that are available or employed at the time of recall so basically these are the memories that you must have seen sometime or the more we try something happens that we can't remember why because we can't get any clue to remember that information so that information cannot reach our awareness so that is what forgetting due to retrieval failure. category names in this example act as retrieval cues. category names ke alawa the physical context which you learn also provide effective retrieval cues.

am jaisay apple hai to uska maine apne dimaag mein ek drawer banaya hawa hai ek mental drawer create kiya hawa hai ki apple matlak fruits. to ye basically categories ke naam hai jinket through hum bhot achhise cheezo ko yaad kar sakte hai. apel banana I have related Pomegranate Peer to Fruits It is in the Fruits category So I can quickly remove that information from my mind and bring it to my awareness So in this way the names of the categories act like retrieval cues Now how can we enhance our memory?

How can we improve our memory? There is a question to be formulated from our exam point of view Memory can be enhanced by the use of mnemonics. They help to improve your memory.

So, there are two types of mnemonics. Mnemonics using images. Now, mnemonics using images require that you create vivid and interacting images of the material you wish to remember. We make images of something in our brain, right? So, we remember that thing quickly.

I said apple, you made an apple image in your brain. I said pomegranate, you made an image of pomegranate. So this is basically a trick through which we remember information Now the two most prominent non-anemonic devices which make interesting use of images are the keyword method and the method of loci What is keyword method?

Suppose you want to learn words of any foreign language Now in keyword method at English word Now the assumption we follow here that you know the English language That sounds similar to the word of a foreign language is identified So suppose you want to learn Spanish and you you have related a Spanish word with a word of English language which both sound similar knowing the fact that you already know the English language now if you want to remember the Spanish word for duck as pato you may choose pot as the keyword which is an English word and then evoke the images of keyword and the target word and imagine them as interacting so basically the word we have to learn is We have related it to an English word which we already know Connected both the information, made an image and learned it You can imagine a duck in a pot full of water So this method of learning words of a foreign language is much superior Compared to any kind of rote memorization Meaning, there is a better way to remember words by writing a letter Now what is the method of loci? In order to use the method of loci Items you want to remember are placed as objects arranged in a physical space in the form of visual images you have to remember a list of items and a gross list of items so you have to keep that item in a physical space like a visual image now this method is particularly helpful in remembering items in a serial order now let's look at this example here now if you want to remember bread eggs tomatoes and soap on your way to the market You may visualize a loaf of bread and eggs placed in your kitchen, tomatoes kept on a table and soap in the bathroom. So when you enter the market, all you need to do is to take a mental walk along the route from your kitchen to the bathroom recalling all the items of your shopping list in a sequence. So basically, we have to remember all the things which we have to remember in a serial order list. We have to place them in a known or familiar physical context and learn.

So this is my method of locating. Now, mnemonics do using organization. Organization means, to fit or organize any information through a certain order of the material you want to remember.

So organization refers to imposing certain order on the material you want to remember. Now, chunking. We have already read that in chunking, several smaller units are combined to form large chunks.

so now it is important to discover some organization principles which can link smaller units so apart from being a control mechanism to increase the capacity of short term memory chunking can be used to improve memory as so it is both a short term memory process and a memory improvement aspect first letter technique now in order to employ the first letter technique you need to pick up the first letter of each word you want to remember and arrange them to form a word or sentence just the colors on the rainbow both common here i miss it as remember violet indigo blue green yellow orange and red so in sorry colors first word It is easy to remember the colours of the rainbow. Now, in such an approach, emphasis is laid on applying knowledge about memory processes to the task of memory improvement. So, through mnemonics, we improve our memory.

Now we should always engage in deep level processing while learning something. Now Craig and Lockhart have demonstrated that processing information in terms of the meaning that they convey leads to better memory as compared to attending to the surface features. It is better to understand the meaning of the information rather than to understand it from the top. Deep processing would involve asking as many questions relating to the information as possible, considering its meaning and examining its relationships to the facts you already know. So that is what the whole process of deep level processing is.

We should always try to minimize interference. We know that interference is a major cause of forgetting. You should try to avoid it as much as possible. We know that maximum interference is when we remember similar materials in a sequence.

So we should learn the subjects in such a way that they are not connected to each other. If you study Maths first, then study some theory subjects, then study some language, then such information will not compete with each other and retrieval will be easy. So always arrange the study material in a varied and different form.

Give yourself enough retrieval cues, identify them, and link parts of the study material to these cubes. So, always take clues and read by connecting things. Now, Thomas and Robinson have developed another strategy to help students in remembering more, which they call the method of PQRS. Now, you can use this PQRS funda daily in your studies. P means Preview, Q means Question, R means Read, S means Self-Recitation and T means Test.

What is Preview? it refers to giving a cursory look at the chapter and familiarizing itself with the contents if you turn pages of a chapter and read the headings then you get a little idea of what are the topics in this chapter and you get familiar with them question means raising questions and seeking answers from the lesson if you think that this is the topic in this chapter then it will be like this now I will find it in the book This is our second step. Now we start reading and look for the answers of the questions you have raised.

Now after reading the fourth step, we try to rewrite what you have read. We recite or rewrite the content we have read so that we can do our fourth step, self-recitation. And in the end, we always take tests so that we can understand that how much have we been able to understand. So these are our five steps of PKVARASTI. which help in improving the human memory given by Thomas and Robin.

So that was all for this chapter. I hope you've understood the concepts well. Thank you so much.

Transcript for:Understanding Human Memory Processes

Transcript for:
Understanding Human Memory Processes