Transcript for:
Ensuring Dog Welfare in Human Care

Title: URL Source: blob://pdf/07a18fc84b0eb7e6cd2e8c2ea59c3295 Markdown Content: 14 The welfare of dogs in human care ROBERT HUBRECHT, STEPHEN WICKENS AND JAMES KIRKWOOD https://doi.org/10.1017/9781139161800.014 Published online by Cambridge University Press 272 The welfare of dogs in human care 14.1 Introduction The majority of domestic dogs in Western countries are companion or pet animals. However, dogs are also used as working and laboratory animals, and may live alongside human society in feral or free-roaming populations. In each of these different types of relationship, situations arise in which dog welfare may be compromised. Most people would agree that we have a duty of stewardship to the dogs that we own, and that we have some responsibility for the welfare of dogs that become ownerless, or which have suffered or are likely to suffer harm as a result of human actions. For all these dogs we need to make decisions on their care, housing, methods of transport, medical care, euthanasia, and other issues, and these decisions should be based on the best available evidence. This chapter provides a brief introduction to the subject of welfare and its assessment. It focuses on some of the welfare issues that affect dogs (genetic welfare problems, issues relating to dogs as companions and their housing and care), discusses their causes, and indicates how some of these problems might be alleviated. # 14.2 What do we mean by welfare? Welfare scientists have not always agreed as to how welfare should be defined (Fraser et al ., 1997). Our view is that what matters to the animal, and hence what should matter most to us, is that it is healthy and generally feeling a range of positive and pleasurable feelings rather than negative experiences such as pain, boredom, frustration, and so on (Dawkins, 1980, 2004; Duncan, 1993; Kirkwood, 2006). ## 14.2.1 How good can it get? Many of the traditional concerns about animal welfare have been about correcting states of poor wel- fare resulting, for example, from poor husbandry or cruelty. However, those who care for dogs often want to do more, wishing to provide a good life full of positive experiences and good feelings. Some animal welfare scientists and regulatory agencies are beginning to give thought to ideas such as qual-ity of life and a life worth living (e.g. Farm Animal Welfare Council, 2009; Grandin & Johnson, 2009 , p. 5; Taylor & Mills, 2007 ; Yeates, 2011 ; Yeates & Main, 2009 ). These concepts are not, how- ever, simple. It is not clear, for example, whether it is possible or even desirable to live in a state of permanent positive affect, and if not, how long or how positive a state, or what balance of positives and (unavoidable) negatives one should be aiming for. Moreover, if one is thinking of using legal sanctions, what should owners reasonably be required to do to ensure their animal is experiencing these positive states? Finally, an animals wants, e.g. for food treats may not always be in its best long-term interests. # 14.3 Assessing welfare We do not have access to any but our own minds and have no way to measure objectively the mental experiences that constitute an animals welfare. We can only assess or judge the inten- sity of feelings, such as pain and anxiety, indirectly from clinical, pathological and behavioral > https://doi.org/10.1017/9781139161800.014 Published online by Cambridge University Press 273 Robert Hubrecht, Stephen Wickens and James Kirkwood signs. This is a fundamental difficulty in animal welfare and in animal welfare science, as it is in the case of humans who, because of age, infirmity, injury or disease, are unable to speak or use signs to report how they feel. However, as the brain states that give rise to mental states interact with physiology and behavior, it is possible to use these (preferably in combination) to inform the assessment of animal welfare (see e.g. Fraser, 2008; Hawkins, 2002; Latham, 2010; Rooney et al ., 2007). Whatever measures or techniques are used, their interpretation invariably involves a degree of subjectivity (Mason & Mendl, 1993 ). The process is therefore a two-stage one: careful review of the observable, measurable physical and behavioral changes, followed by judgement about the feelings they are likely to reflect. The difficulties of the second, subjective stage of the pro- cess can be minimised by making the bases of the inferences as explicit as possible (Kirkwood et al ., 1994). ## 14.3.1 Behavioral measures of welfare Animals use behavior to respond rapidly to changes in their environment, to avoid stressors, and to express preferences. As such, behavior can be a sensitive and non-invasive indicator of welfare. ## Performance of natural behavior The behavior of animals in the wild can provide clues to their needs in captivity (Dawkins, 1980 ). However, the domestic dog has been subjected to a minimum of 10 000 years of artificial selection (vonHoldt & Driscoll, Chapter 3 ). As a result, its behavior differs signifi cantly from that of its ances- tor, Canis lupus , and it is unclear what a natural environment for a dog might be. It is even arguable whether we can treat the domestic dog as a single entity with respect to its welfare. We have selected for a wide range of dog breeds that differ in size, shape and behavior, and which may have different welfare needs. Despite this caveat, all dogs share some characteristics that can inform husbandry decisions, such as sociality, neophilia (Kaulfu & Mills, 2008 ), and may range over large areas when free-roaming (Nesbitt, 1975 ). ## Behavior under different husbandry regimens Observations of behavior under different husbandry regimens can be used to make comparative assessments of welfare, and to assess the quality of various housing and husbandry regimens, including enrichment options. An initial approach may be to study the overall pattern of behavior by drawing up so-called time, or activity, budgets that quantify the time animals spend perform-ing various behaviors. Another approach is to record specific behaviors of interest, such as the prevalence of desirable behaviors (e.g. play, social behavior, use of enrichment items, etc.), as well as undesirable behaviors considered to be indicative of poor welfare (Table 14.1). Although laborious, collection of these kinds of data is relatively straightforward. Interpretation of the results is much harder. For example, is increased activity following an attempt to improve husbandry a good or a bad thing? Some types of behavior are generally accepted as cause for concern. Dogs may develop stereotyped/repetitive behavior such as circling, wall-bouncing or repetitive jumping; or self- injurious behavior such as flank-sucking or excessive self-grooming when kept in poor or restrictive housing conditions for long periods. Stereotypies can be signs of a serious welfare insult to the animal and some stereotypies have been linked with deficits in the functioning of the brains basal ganglia that could affect other aspects of the animals behavior (Garner & Mason, 2002). However, while stereotypies can be a warning signal that something bad has happened, they are > https://doi.org/10.1017/9781139161800.014 Published online by Cambridge University Press 274 The welfare of dogs in human care not always good indicators of current welfare status as stereotypies may persist when the animal is placed in better conditions (Mason, 1991). ## Experimental behavioral studies A number of experimental techniques have been used to assess the value that animals place on particular resources such as social contacts, environmental enrichment, and other aspects of their husbandry and care. Choice or preference tests can be used to rank motivation to use or obtain certain resources (e.g. Pullen et al ., 2010), but such studies only indicate that the animal prefers one resource or environment to another, not how much more the animal wants it. Operant studies, in which the animal has to work to obtain access to a resource, have been used to assess animals desires for various resources (see e.g. Kirkden & Pajor, 2006 for review) but, to our knowledge, there are no published studies of this sort that address aspects of dog husbandry. In humans, expectations about the future are biased by affective state; depressed patients being more likely to predict a negative outcome than normal patients. These kinds of cognitive biases have been demonstrated in a variety of species including dogs (Mendl et al ., 2010 ) and their measurement may represent a useful approach to assessing animals responses to various husbandry regimes. Increased sensitivity to reward loss (Burman et al ., 2008 ) and the development of anhedonia (Willner et al ., 1987 ) may also provide insights into animals affective states, and anticipatory behavior has been suggested as a way of distinguishing between the value of different Table 14.1 Some responses of dogs to acute and chronic stressors. Acute (e.g. sudden loud noise) Chronic (e.g. austere housing) Low posture Body shaking Crouching Oral behaviors (tongue out, licking muzzle, swallowing, etc.) Restlessness Yawning Heart rate changes Elevated cortisol Peripheral leukocytosis Low posture Increased auto grooming Paw lifting Vocalising Repetitive behavior Coprophagy Elevated cortisol/creatine ratio Increased catecholamines Increased acute phase proteins Decreased immune response (neutrophil/ lymphocyte ratio) When stimulated: High levels of locomotor activity Increased levels of change of active state Body shaking Yawning Ambivalent postures Displacement behavior Hypervigilance Sources: Beerda et al . ( 1997 , 1998 , 1999a , 1999b , 2000 ); Siracusa et al . ( 2008 ). > https://doi.org/10.1017/9781139161800.014 Published online by Cambridge University Press 275 Robert Hubrecht, Stephen Wickens and James Kirkwood housing and husbandry systems (van der Harst et al ., 2003 ; van der Harst & Spruijt, 2007 ), but we are not aware that these methods have been tried with dogs. ## 14.3.2 Physiological measures of welfare Animals use a combination of physiological and behavioral coping mechanisms to respond to stressful situations (Moberg & Mench, 2000 ). For other species, see National Research Council (NRC), 2008 ; Latham, 2010 ), there are a number of physiological parameters that have been, or could be, used to assess responses to stressors in dogs. These include body weight and heart rate (Beerda et al ., 1998 ; Newton & Lucas, 1982 ), cortisol (Beerda et al ., 1999a; Hennessy et al ., 1997 ; Hiby et al ., 2006 ; Hubrecht, 1993 ; Rooney et al ., 2007 ; Tuber et al ., 1996 ), prolactin, adrenalin (epinephrine) and various measures of immune response. Physiological measures, like behavioral measures, need to be interpreted with care. Responses vary depending on the stressor and whether it is chronic or acute ( Table 14.1). Concentrations of cortisol vary with time of day so samples need to be taken at a fixed time. Also, the link with welfare is not always clear (Rooney et al ., 2007). Measures of cortisol, for example, do not tell you whether the animals mental state is positive or negative, as they can rise in response to general activity as well as to long-term unpleasant stressors. Care should also be taken regarding the sampling proce- dure as the sampling techniques themselves may be stressful. Samples must be taken quickly before hormone levels have a chance to rise either due to the procedure or anticipation of the procedure. On ethical grounds the least invasive techniques for collecting samples should be used; so salivary, urinary or fecal samples may be preferable to using blood. # 14.4 Genetic welfare problems During the process of domestication of the dog from the wolf, humans have gradually taken over from natural selection in deciding which individuals should survive and breed. Depending on what their keepers required of them, dogs were selected variously for strength, size, speed, shepherd- ing ability, and many other physical and behavioral characteristics (Lord et al ., Chapter 4). More recently, selection for more apparently whimsical preferences, such as coat length, quality and col- our; facial morphology; tail and ear carriage, and many other aspects of appearance has become prevalent. The result is that, in a very short time in evolutionary terms, the wolfs descendants have become hundreds of distinct breeds of dogs. This transformation of the wolf into the Chihuahua, the Great Dane and everything else in between, was not the result of some overall plan or breeding strategy. It just happened as a result of countless owners around the world pursuing their own breeding interests and preferences. The pro- cess has become a little more formalised in some parts of the world in the last two centuries with the development of the idea of breed standards, which often continue to refl ect arbitrary preferences (or unconscious biases) about aspects of appearance. In these ways, humans have, wittingly or unwit- tingly, been opening up new niches for wolves and their descendants to exploit from hill farms or greyhound race-tracks to urban sitting rooms. Evolution has taken the opportunities presented to it, and yielded a diversity of animals to fill these roles. The outcome of selection on the animals has remained evolutionary fitness, but this fi tness has come to be largely about how closely animals match arbitrary human preferences. > https://doi.org/10.1017/9781139161800.014 Published online by Cambridge University Press 276 The welfare of dogs in human care Only very recently has there been any interest in the welfare consequences of the changes that we have brought about to the biology of the animals. In 2006, the UK Companion Animal Welfare Council (CAWC) stated in its report on Breeding and Welfare in Companion Animals: In contrast to the considerable attention given to, and concern expressed about, the welfare of farmed animals and about animals used in scientific procedures, societys tolerance of the scale and severity of the welfare risks inherent in selection for arbitrary traits in companion animals seems rather surprising. It appears that the subject has been, to a large extent, overlooked. (CAWC, 2006 ) This was not the first time that concerns had been raised the problem had been commented upon several times in previous decades. However, this time it appeared to strike a chord and, follow- ing the publication of the CAWC report, and stimulated especially by Jemima Harrisons (2008) powerful BBC television documentary Pedigree Dogs Exposed , there has been evidence of greater awareness and growing concern about the subject all around the world. In the UK, further reviews were undertaken (Associate Parliamentary Group for Animal Welfare (APGAW), 2009 ; Bateson, 2010 ), and these also concluded that concerted efforts were necessary to address the problems. In 2010, breed-related health issues among dogs and cats were among the top three concerns voiced by veterinarians and veterinary nurses surveyed by the Peoples Dispensary for Sick Animals (PDSA and YouGov, 2011 ). ## 14.4.1 What are the problems? Genetic welfare problems tend to arise in one of two ways: first, as consequences of deliberate selection for accentuated anatomical features. For example, the breathing difficulties of pugs and bulldogs are caused by their having been bred for an abnormal, short-muzzled (brachycephalic) head shape (Figure 14.1). In these animals, the shortening of the bone structure of the muzzle is not matched by corresponding reduction in the soft tissues of the mouth, nose and throat, so the airways are narrowed and obstructed (Brown and Gregory, 2005). And second, when a rare, chance, harmful genetic mutation becomes prevalent in a breed because of inbreeding. 1 For example, Dalmatians very commonly have a recessive gene that affects the normal breakdown of body protein resulting in high levels of uric acid in the urine (Bannasch et al ., 2008). This tends to crystallise out in the urine causing uric acid calculi (stones) to form in the bladder. These calculi can cause severe and painful disease if they pass into the urethra and block the passage of urine. While the nature of the problem will dictate the best approaches to tackling it, this distinction between the ways in which genetic welfare problems arise is neither very clear nor necessarily useful. Basically the problem is the same in both cases: selection for, or maintenance of, arbitrary features has resulted in some form of disease that affects the animals welfare. In both cases, the adverse welfare consequences were unintended and, in both cases, the problems (high uric acid levels and restricted airways) are due to the effects of genes. Hundreds of hereditary conditions that affect health and welfare have been recognized in dogs (Gough and Thomas, 2010; Lindblad-Toh et al ., 2005 ; Universities Federation for Animal Welfare (UFAW), 2011 ). Some are common (e.g. the various respiratory and ocular problems associated with brachycephalic head shape see the UFAW Genetic Welfare Problems website 2 ) and some are rare. 1 Inbreeding has been a very common practice in many breeds of domestic dogs resulting in the effective population sizes of some breeds becoming very limited (Calboli et al ., 2008 ). 2 www.ufaw.org.uk > https://doi.org/10.1017/9781139161800.014 Published online by Cambridge University Press 277 Robert Hubrecht, Stephen Wickens and James Kirkwood 14.4.2 How do genetic changes affect welfare? Most genetic changes (mutations) are minor and arise, not because of the complete loss or addition of numerous genes, but through slight changes to one. A change to a gene may result in it producing a (usually, very slightly) different protein. Depending on the role of the protein what it does and when, from conception to old age, and under what circumstances it is triggered to do it the change may have no wider effects at all or it may, at the other end of the spectrum, be catastrophic. Some proteins perform relatively minor and limited functions; others play key roles throughout the body and throughout life. For these reasons, it is usually very diffi cult or impossible to predict what selec- tion for one characteristic for example, an aspect of behavior or coat colour may also have on other aspects of the biology of the descendants. ## 14.4.3 Assessment of the welfare effects of genetic conditions and diseases Although the welfare effects of some genetic diseases and conditions are relatively mild, it is thought that some conditions, such as syringomyelia, can cause severe and prolonged pain or discomfort (Rusbridge, 2007 ). How are such welfare effects assessed? Where efforts have been made to assess the welfare effects of genetic conditions and diseases (e.g. UFAW, 2011 ), these have been based on knowledge of the nature and severity of the pathology caused, the changes in behavior that they cause, and on knowledge or inferences about how such pathology feels in humans. ## 14.4.4 What can be done to address the problems? The high prevalence of genetic welfare problems in dogs has arisen as a side-effect of anthropogenic (human) selection. In principle, it should be possible and, in many cases, relatively simple, to tackle these problems and minimise or eliminate them merely by breeding from unaffected animals (i.e. not > (a) (b) > Figure 14.1 Comparing the normal shape (mesocephalic) (a) with the brachycephalic dog (b), the brachycephalic skull is severely shortened, particularly the muzzle, the eyes sockets are shallow and the jaw is deformed. ( Rowena Packer, reprinted with permission.) (A black and white version of this figure will appear in some formats. For the color version, please refer to the plate section.) > https://doi.org/10.1017/9781139161800.014 Published online by Cambridge University Press 278 The welfare of dogs in human care breeding from affected animals even if the entire breed is affected except perhaps to outcross with unaffected animals of other breeds as part of a program to eliminate the condition whilst retaining some characteristics of the original breed). Many genetic welfare conditions could be consigned to history in this way in a very short time. This is likely to happen in cases where, as a result of development of genetic tests, animals that carry mutations resulting in serious diseases can be detected and prevented from breeding. For example, the discovery by Farias et al . ( 2010 ) of the mutation that underlies the cause of primary lens luxation (displacement of the lens within the eye), seen in various terrier breeds, has led to the development of a genetic test that should enable elimination of this painful condition (Animal Health Trust, 2011 ). However, in practice, there can be several difficulties in tackling these genetic diseases and con- ditions. Care must be taken to ensure that selective breeding to eliminate one disease does not worsen or inadvertently cause another. Such complications are a serious problem in some breeds (e.g. Cavalier King Charles spaniel) in which various genetic disorders are highly prevalent (e.g. Forman et al ., 2012 ). A more fundamental diffi culty is that abnormalities that some people see as diseases that need to be tackled are perceived by others, not as diseases at all, but as desirable features. We might include abnormalities such as brachycephalic head shape, excessive skin folding, and floppy ears in some breeds as examples of such cases. Progress in preventing genetic welfare diseases will depend, to a great extent, on public understanding of the need to tackle the problems. There are indications of the beginnings of a change in attitudes to companion animal breeding, with much greater emphasis being put on health and welfare. This and the development of new genetic tests and efforts to put in place coordinated breeding strategies for health, will, we hope, lead quite rapidly to huge welfare improvements. # 14.5 Dogs as companions Despite a worldwide increase in urban living a lifestyle often assumed to militate against the keeping of dogs the popularity and demand for dogs as pets is at an all time high. One esti- mate placed the worldwide dog population in 2003 at 283 million. 3 Nonetheless, the popularity of dogs as indicated by dog ownership per household, varies quite considerably by nation (Australian Companion Animal Council (ACAC), 2010 ; Japan Pet Food Associationa (JFPA), 2010 ; Perrin, 2009 ; Scarlett, 2008 ; The European Pet Food Industry Federation (FEDIAF), 2010 ). The domestication process has included selection for behavior that makes dogs suitable as companions, including a propensity to bond with humans (Nagasawa et al ., 2009). Most dogs kept as companions probably lead relatively contented lives in which they are housed in comfort, adequately fed and exercised, and cared for when sick. Unfortunately, for some dogs problems arise as a result of unsuitable owners and/or inadequate resources. Problems may be precipitated when the doghuman relationship breaks down, resulting in rejection of the dog by the owner/carer, which can in turn lead to neglect, abandonment or relinquishment to a shelter and, in some cases, overt abuse or cruelty. Relationship breakdowns may occur because the dog fails to adapt adequately to its role, or because the owner/carer makes unrealistic demands on the dog that it is unable to meet. Commonly, 3 Carodog. Science Law and Policy, Dog Ownership and Canine Overpopulation . [Online]. Available: www.carodog.eu [accessed August 28, 2013]. > https://doi.org/10.1017/9781139161800.014 Published online by Cambridge University Press 279 Robert Hubrecht, Stephen Wickens and James Kirkwood unreasonable demands are founded on anthropomorphic beliefs that dogs experience human emotions and motivations, such as guilt and revenge, despite little evidence that they are capable of such feelings (see Range & Viranyi, Chapter 10). Dog owners, for example, may misinterpret a dogs anxious behavior after house-soiling or damage as a sign of guilt, when in fact the behavior results from the anticipation of punishment or disapproval (Horowitz, 2009; Overall, 1997; Weng et al ., 2006). Even when countries have effective animal protection legislation, poor welfare and cruelty to dogs (and other animals) still occurs. While in some cases there is deliberate cruelty most cases of poor welfare are a result of owner ignorance, inactivity, or a lack of concern that may result from weak or broken ownerdog bonds. Conversely, in exceptional cases, poor welfare results from the owners pathologically strong attachment to the dogs in their care, as is the case with animal hoard- ers (Patronek & Nathanson, 2009 ). Poor welfare can result from neglect; for example, through a failure to provide adequate shelter; access to a regular supply of clean, fresh water; through poor nutrition; keeping the dog in insanitary conditions, or tied up or confi ned for extended periods. Neglect may result in poor body and coat condition, pressure sores and urine scalding of the feet, over-long nails, poor oral health and severe infestation with parasites such as fleas, which may be sufficient to cause skin allergies and hair-loss. In addition, undesirable or problematic behaviors may develop such as a loss of house-training, excessive barking, repetitive spinning or circling. The veterinary surgeon is in the front line to spot and correct neglect and poor welfare when dogs are brought into the clinic. Accordingly, many national veterinary associations now provide their members with guidance about handling these situations (e.g. Arkow et al ., 2011 ). Government departments and NGOs have also provided codes of practice that set out owners duty of care (e.g. Department of the Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (Defra), 2009 ) or through provision of general advice on care and management from organizations such as the American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (ASPCA), PDSA and The Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (RSPCA). ## 14.5.1 Socialization, habituation and training The dogs early social and physical environment affects its ability to cope with subsequent environ-ments, the bond it forms with humans and so its long-term welfare (Scott & Fuller, 1965; Serpell & Jagoe, 1995 ; Serpell et al ., Chapter 6 ). The period of 314 weeks of age (the socialization period) is particularly important (Scott and Fuller, 1965 ). During this period, familiarization to animals or humans (socialization), and exposure to environmental stimuli and objects such as loud noises, traffic and household appliances (habituation) reduce the chances of the dog developing fear, aggres-sion, or anxiety-related behavioral problems (see later section). Dogs reared in conditions of social deprivation are antagonistic when greeted by humans and exhibit agonistic behavior in response to human approach (Feddersen-Petersen, 1994 ). Similarly, dogs reared in non-domestic maternal environments for longer than the first 12 weeks of life are signifi cantly more likely to show avoidant behavior and aggression towards unfamiliar people than those homed earlier (Appleby et al ., 2002 ). People are far more likely to see behaviors that directly affect humans, such as aggression, as severe and problematic compared to those that primarily affect the dog, such as fearfulness. So, aggressive dogs are more likely to have their freedom of movement and exercise opportunities restricted and are at a higher risk of relinquishment or of euthanasia, while owners of fearful dogs are less likely to seek help (Shore et al ., 2008 ). It is worth noting that > https://doi.org/10.1017/9781139161800.014 Published online by Cambridge University Press 280 The welfare of dogs in human care dogs with non-social fear and separation anxiety are more likely to develop skin problems, suggest-ing a compromised immune system, while dogs that show stranger-directed fear have a signifi cantly decreased lifespan (Dreschel, 2010 ). The need to adequately socialize and habituate puppies to improve their quality of life and acceptability to owners is now well recognized (Overall, 1997 ) and regarded as standard practice for commercial breeding establishments (Australian Veterinary Association (AVA), 2012 ). Many veter- inary practices run socialization classes where puppies play with each other in a controlled manner, resulting in sociable dogs with a reduced tendency to develop problematic behaviors (Blackwell et al ., 2008 ; Thompson et al ., 2010). However, some authors (Seksel et al ., 1999 ) have questioned whether this extra level of socialization makes a signifi cant beneficial difference to puppies that have already experienced some level of socialization. It is now generally accepted that responsible dog owners should ensure that their animals are well trained and obedient (AVA, 2012; Defra, 2009). Although training has advantages for the dog that include reducing problem behaviors and improving the bond between the dog and owner (Arhant et al ., 2010; Bennett & Rohlf, 2007; Jagoe & Serpell, 1996; Lefebvre et al ., 2007), the choice of training method can have an impact on welfare (see Reisner, Chapter 11; Zawistowski & Reid, Chapter 12). ## 14.5.2 Separation anxiety In response to separation from humans, which may only be short term, some dogs show a range of separation-related behaviors indicating that they are not coping (Podberscek et al ., 1999 ; Serpell et al ., Chapter 6 ). Bradshaw et al . ( 2002 ) concluded that around 50% of dogs, at some stage of their life, show behavior indicating that they find separation from their owner distressing. Dogs that exhibit high levels of separation related behaviors also show pessimistic cognitive bias (Mendl et al ., 2010 ), which might suggest that such individuals have a more negative emotional state. As separation-related behaviors are shown in the absence of the owner or carer, it is diffi cult to assess the number of dogs that suffer, or the degree of severity. Most owners are only aware of the behaviors because of evidence on their return commonly inappropriate elimination or destruction of household objects or because of the reports of people living close by of repetitive and prolonged incidents of barking or howling. The UKs Association of Pet Behaviour Counsellors (APBC) reports that on average between 1015% of owners who contact them for advice on problem behaviors are seeking guidance on behaviors associated with separation distress, most frequently problems of inappropriate elimination (APBC, 2014 ). Dogs with separation problems may be more likely to be relinquished to rescue shelters, which may help to account for the predisposition to separation prob- lems in dogs obtained from these establishments (Serguson et al ., 2005 ). Interestingly Diesel et al .( 2010a) found that over 40% of the dogs relinquished in their study had spent, on average, four or more hours left alone, and 20% spent six or more hours alone in a day. It has been hypothesized that dogs with hyper-attachment to their owner are more likely to suf- fer separation distress (APBC, 2014 ; Flannigan & Dodman, 2001 ), but others disagree, arguing that dogs with separation distress differ in the style of attachment (Parthasarathy & Crowell-Davis, 2006 ). The length of time that they are left also has an impact on their behavior (Rehn & Keeling, 2011 ). One study of dogs with separation distress (Palestrini et al ., 2010 ) found that behaviors fell into four categories exploratory behavior (e.g. pacing), object play, destructive behavior (6% of total observed time) and vocalization (23% of total observed time). These behaviors were cyclical and most frequently shown on initial separation, becoming less frequent with time. Panting (14% of > https://doi.org/10.1017/9781139161800.014 Published online by Cambridge University Press 281 Robert Hubrecht, Stephen Wickens and James Kirkwood observed time) and excessive salivation were also seen. Elimination was only observed infrequently despite this being one of the primary indicators for owners that their dog may have a problem. Events such as delivery of mail or the barking of a dog outside could trigger the cycle of behavior again. Frustration caused by separation from the owner, which leads to arousal and increased fear, seems to be the cause of the behavior rather than boredom (Lund & Jrgensen, 1999 ). Separation anxiety is treatable, and systematic desensitization has proved successful. This involves gradually accustoming the dog to being left alone (Blackwell et al ., 2006 ; Butler et al ., 2011 ). However, it is preferable to avoid the problem by ensuring that the dog has experienced socially diverse environments between 612 months of age (Bradshaw et al ., 2002 ; Thompson et al ., 2010 , see also Serpell et al ., Chapter 6 ). ## 14.5.3 Obesity Canine obesity is an increasing cause of concern in many countries. It has been suggested that in Europe, for example, around 50% of all dogs are overweight. 4 The main cause of obesity is over-feed-ing with energy-rich food and treats, although lack of exercise and medical illness contribute to the problem (Anderson, 1973; Bland et al ., 2009; Courcier et al ., 2010). Some breeds, such as Labrador retrievers, also seem genetically predisposed to obesity. Associated health problems include joint problems, cardiac, circulatory and liver diseases, diabetes, skin complaints and respiratory difficulties. Obesity also decreases life span (German, 2006) and can exacerbate inherent breed health problems. Better owner education about dietary and exercise needs is the only way to address this concern (Bland et al ., 2010 ; Robertson, 2003 ), but some owners are reluctant to change their behavior as they enjoy feeding their animal (Carciofi et al ., 2005 ; Kienzle et al ., 1998 ) and may be ambivalent or even positively disposed to them being overweight (Rohlf et al ., 2010 ). Others have cited diffi culties in exercising their dog properly, including a lack of access to places where dogs can be exercised off-leash. ## 14.5.4 Abandonment/relinquishment For various reasons, dogs may be abandoned and/or enter a shelter, following which they are either reclaimed, rehomed or euthanized (Table 14.2). Reliable data are hard to obtain but it appears that about 14% of the dog population in the countries shown in the table may be at risk of being abandoned and/or of entering a shelter each year. During this process dogs are likely to experience poor welfare whether as a stray, if their accommodation does not meet their needs, or while they adapt to changes in circumstances and the shelter environment (Hennessy et al ., 1997; Stephen & Ledger, 2005). The majority of dogs entering shelters are strays as opposed to having been given up by owners for rehoming (although some strays may have been deliberately abandoned by their owners). The fate of stray dogs is heavily infl uenced by the culture of the country. In Japan, very few strays are reclaimed or rehomed, the majority being euthanized. This contrasts with the situation in the UK and Australia where reclaiming rates for stray dogs are high (nearly 50% in the UK) and where the reported percentage of euthanized dogs is lower. 4 International Federation for Animal Health Europe (2011). Companion Animal Health in Europe: Factsheet . [Online]. > Available: www.carodog.eu/data/pet_health_fact_sheet_january_2011.pdf [accessed August 29, 2013]. > https://doi.org/10.1017/9781139161800.014 Published online by Cambridge University Press Table 14.2 Numbers and fates of dogs entering shelters > Country Population of companion dogs (Millions) Number of dogs entering animal shelters per year Proportion of strays vs. relinquished Percentage of dogs that are reclaimed/returned to their owners Rehomed Euthanized USA 77.5 (ACAC, 2010) 2 329 978 5 63% / 27% 2550% 2550% 5056% > UK 9.4 (Asher et al ., 2011) 126 176 (stray) Unknown number of dogs relinquished 17 500 dogs to the RSPCA alone 88% / 12% 48% Wardens rehome 6% of stray dogs, 25% are passed on to rescue shelters. The RSPCA reports that they rehome 90%+ of the animals they receive. 67.3% of stray dogs (~ 56% RSPCA) > Australia 3.4 (ACAC, 2010) 157 094 84% / 15% 35.4% 27.2% 29% > Canada 6(Perrin, 2009) 57 277 25.50% 42.70% 23% > Japan 11.8 (JFPA, 2010) 173 777 75% / 25% 9% 8% 58% > Spain 4.7 (FEDIAF, 2010) 98 000 (estimated as 2% of national population) Sources for columns other than population: USA (The Humane Society of the United States (HSUS), 2009; ASPCA, 2011; National Council on Pet Population Study and Policy (NCPPSP), 2012); UK (RSPCA, 2010; Brickell, 2011); Australia (RSPCA Australia, 2011); Canada (Canadian Federation of Humane Societies, 2011); Japan (ALIVE, 2009); > Spain All Life in Viable Environment (Houpt et al ., 2007). 5 The NCPPSP study which reports these data only provided figures from those shelters that responded to its survey, so the figures for number of animals admitted to shelters may be underestimates. The report warns that, It is not possible to use these statistics to estimate the numbers of animals entering animal shelters in the United States, or the numbers > euthanized on an annual basis. 6 NB The RSPCA study reports figures for the number of all species handled (e.g. dogs, cats, reptiles, small mammals, etc.). Also, the proportion of animals euthanized is reported > only for those regarded as healthy. As such, those that are ill or regarded as being unsuitable for rehoming due to problem behaviors such as excessive aggression have been excluded from the data. > https://doi.org/10.1017/9781139161800.014 Published online by Cambridge University Press 283 Robert Hubrecht, Stephen Wickens and James Kirkwood Behavioral problems are a significant cause of relinquishment. Approximately 3440% of dogs relinquished to shelters were reported by their owner as having one or more unwanted or problem- atic behaviors, of which aggression (to animals or people), hyperactivity, destructive behaviors, and inappropriate elimination in the house are the most consistently cited (Marston et al ., 2004; New et al ., 2002; Patronek et al ., 1996; Salman et al ., 2000). The real incidence of behavior problems may be even higher if owners know that dogs are less likely to be rehomed when the owner gives the dogs behavior or health as a reason (DeLeeuw, 2011), and that dogs with behavior problems, particularly aggression, are more likely to be euthanized (55% of the 19 583 dogs euth- anized by the Australian RSPCA in 201011 were killed because of behavioral problems; RSPCA Australia, 2011). New owners often report that their dog shows one or more problem behaviors, the most com-mon being fearfulness (Wells & Hepper, 2000b ). Fearfulness may indicate that the shelter/rehom- ing experience has some detrimental impact on welfare, even if this is transient. 7 Other problem behaviors shown in the new home can be more diffi cult for owners to cope with and problems with aggression, house-soiling and barking are the main reasons given for returning dogs to shelters (Christensen et al ., 2007 ; Diesel et al ., 2008 ; Marston et al ., 2004 ; Wells & Hepper, 2000a). Return rates as high as 18.8% were reported in one study (Patronek et al ., 1995 ). Reducing the incidence of ownerdog relationship breakdown should reduce the numbers of ani- mals that experience the stresses of abandonment and rehoming. Measures include ensuring that the dog behaves acceptably, through basic training and appropriate socialization and habituation at an early age, and swift resolution of any problematic behaviors (see Askew, 1996 ; Overall, 1997 ; Thompson et al ., 2010 ; Zawistowski & Reid, Chapter 12 ). Some authors have suggested that the largest reduction in risk of future unsuccessful ownership could be achieved by preventing owners with a previous history of unsuccessful dog ownership from acquiring a dog in the future (Weng et al ., 2006 ). Others argue that more attention needs to be devoted to the identification and selective breeding of dogs with behavioral traits that make them good companions (King et al ., 2012 ). ## 14.5.5 Animal hoarding Some people develop a pathological hyperattachment to their animals and become animal hoarders (Patronek, 2008 ). One estimate placed the total number of animals that died as a result of inappro- priate husbandry in the USA in 2010 at 23 758, of which the largest category (12%) were due to the actions of animal hoarders (Pet-Abuse.Com, 2011 ). Animal hoarding is generally recognized by the following criteria: Having more than the typical number of companion animals. Failing to provide even minimal standards of nutrition, sanitation, shelter, and veterinary care, with this neglect often resulting in illness and death from starvation, spread of infectious disease, and untreated injury or medical condition. Denial of the inability to provide this minimum care and the impact of that failure on the ani- mals, the household, and human occupants of the dwelling (The Hoarding of Animals Research Consortium (HARC), 2011 ). 7 This is despite the fact that some shelters euthanize fearful dogs rather than trying to rehome them (Marston et al ., 2004). Temperament tests used to discriminate between dogs and decide what should happen to them on entry to a shelter e.g. put up for rehoming or euthanized are commonly unvalidated or unreliable (see Christensen et al ., 2007; Mornement et al ., 2010). > https://doi.org/10.1017/9781139161800.014 Published online by Cambridge University Press 284 The welfare of dogs in human care The homes of animal hoarders, or the places where they keep the animals, are often squalid and insan- itary. Hoarders refuse to acknowledge this and are reluctant to seek or act on offers of help or advice to ensure that their animals are adequately cared for (Patronek, 2008). Hoarders often become isolated which worsens the problems, and unlike others that have been prosecuted for committing deliberate acts of wanton cruelty, are very likely to commit the offence again given the opportunity (Patronek, 2008 ). The act of animal hoarding has been likened to an obsessive-compulsive disorder similar to those who hoard inanimate objects. However, Mataix-Cols et al . (2010) suggest that animal hoarding should be regarded as a new disorder within the spectrum of obsessive-compulsive behaviors. ## 14.5.6 Non-essential cosmetic surgery A number of non-therapeutic surgical procedures are carried out on dogs, such as marking or to mod- ify dogs towards some arbitrary ideal (see also genetic welfare problems). Young ( 1976 ) regarded all such surgical procedures, including castration, spaying, declawing, teeth-cutting and ear implants, as mutilations and as morally unacceptable, but a more balanced approach is to consider the justi-fication for each procedure and to weigh up the harms and benefits to the animals involved. Some consider that there is little justification for mutilations done solely for aesthetic reasons, but arguments for some procedures, such as tail-docking and removal of dewclaws, have been made on welfare as well as aesthetic grounds. Those who support docking, for example, variously argue that, for some breeds, it is established custom, forms part of the breed standard, prevents possible damage to the tail or that, in long-haired dogs, it reduces the accumulation of fecal matter around the tail area. Others have raised significant welfare concerns. Noonan et al . ( 1996 ) reported that puppies vocalise strongly at the time of the amputation and that the more vocalizations made, the longer the pup took to settle in the recovery period. They concluded that although it was diffi cult to objectively quantify the stress experienced by puppies, they apparently experienced pain, albeit short-lived. Tail-docking has also been associated with an increased risk of long-term pain from neuromas, although others dispute this (Bennett and Perini, 2003 ; Defra, 2002 ). With respect to the welfare benefits, these seem to be limited given the risks of acute and possibly chronic pain. A recent UK study found that docking reduced the risk of injury by 12% and that the number of dogs that would need to have their tail docked to prevent one tail injury was 500 dogs (Diesel et al ., 2010b ). In a number of countries e.g. Sweden, France, the Netherlands, the UK, Belgium, Australia and New Zealand docking and ear-cropping are now prohibited or restricted, and dogs that have expe-rienced either procedure cannot participate in dog shows. Elsewhere, veterinary and other organiza- tions, such as the American Veterinary Medical Association (AVMA), Canadian Veterinary Medical Association (CVMA) and European convention for the protection of pet animals, have issued posi- tion statements against routine cosmetic surgery (AVMA, 2012 ; CVMA, 2005 ; Rehn & Keeling, 2011 ). Removal of dewclaws is, however, less proscribed. Debarking, or devocalization, is a procedure in which the vocal folds are partially or totally removed under anaesthesia. Dogs that have undergone the procedure can still vocalise but the bark subsequently sounds like a husky cough. Potential harms include the risks associated with the surgery itself, possible infection, pain and bleeding and later risk of scar tissue occluding the throat. In addition, the procedure does not address the issue of the dogs motivation to bark, which may be caused by another welfare issue (Lund & Jrgensen, 1999 ). It has been suggested that debarking is only justified if the procedure is carried out as a last resort, when other approaches such as behavio-ral modifi cation to reduce excessive barking have failed (Butler et al ., 2011 ; Overall, 1997 ), and the dog is faced with euthanasia (AVMA, 2012 ; CVMA, 2012 ; Houpt et al ., 2007 ). > https://doi.org/10.1017/9781139161800.014 Published online by Cambridge University Press 285 Robert Hubrecht, Stephen Wickens and James Kirkwood Some elective procedures such as sterilization are more widely supported. Carried out under anaesthetic, the small amount of suffering infl icted during and after the procedure can be balanced against the reduction in unwanted puppies and some health benefits (Houpt et al ., 2007 ). Sterilized animals are at a reduced risk of some diseases such as testicular tumour, hormone-dependent anal gland neoplasia, avoid pyometra later in life and live significantly longer than intact animals (Dreschel, 2010 ). Opponents of routine sterilization point to weight increase, possible urinary incon- tinence and change in temperament. In addition, some contend that sterilization takes away some essential part of what it is to be a dog a concept called telos by Rollin ( 2007 ). Early sterilization can be part of a strategy to rid a population of genetic health problems, but could also result in the loss of genes from individuals that are free of genetic health problems. Nonetheless, for the reasons outlined, most veterinary associations now support or positively encourage the routine sterilization of dogs (e.g. AVA, 2012 ; AVMA, 2012 ; British Small Animal Veterinary Association (BSAVA), 1999a , 1999b ; CVMA, 2005 , 2012 ). # 14.6 Housing and husbandry Examples of dog housing that may be used for some or all of a dogs life include: breeding establish- ments, rescue shelters, quarantine kennels, boarding kennels, racing kennels, training establishments for assistance dogs, kennels for hunt dogs, kennels for police, security and military working dogs, and breeding and research units for dogs used in biomedical or pet food research. In all these circum- stances poor housing and husbandry can result in behavioral abnormalities that increase in prevalence the longer dogs are housed in these conditions (Hubrecht et al ., 1992; Mertens & Unshelm, 1996). There are reasons other than welfare to provide high standards. Many people value dogs highly (Driscoll, 1995 ), and consequently expect good quality dog housing. For rescue shelters, rehom- ing is improved if enclosures look good and contain objects that are thought to improve the dogs welfare (Wells & Hepper, 1992 , 2000b ). For animals used in research, inadequate environments result in stress, affecting a range of physiological and behavioral measures that may bias or other- wise invalidate experimental outcomes (Garner, 2005 ; Poole, 1997 ). Good general approaches are to provide complexity and choice within the dogs environment, and to build kennelling that is relatively easy and inexpensive to modify in response to changing needs and better understanding of dog biology and requirements. The sections that follow highlight some of the major issues that need to be considered by anyone managing a kennel facility (see also Anon, 2003 ; Hubrecht & Buckwell, 2004 ; Joint Working Group on Refi nement, 2004 ; MacArthur-Clark & Pomeroy, 2010 ; Wells, 2004 ). ## 14.6.1 Space allowances Most codes of practice specify minimum areas and stocking densities. However, there is little agree- ment between different jurisdictions on these minimum space allowances. The United States Code of Federal Regulations 8 requires that the minimum floor space for dogs should be calculated by > 8Code of Federal Regulations Title 9 Animals and Animal Products 2.31 Volume: 1 Date: 200901-01. Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee (IACUC). d(1). [Online]. Available: www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/CFR-2009-title9-vol1/xml/ CFR-2009-title9-vol1-chapI-subchapA.xml [accessed August 29, 2013]. > https://doi.org/10.1017/9781139161800.014 Published online by Cambridge University Press 286 The welfare of dogs in human care finding the mathematical square of the sum of the length of the dog in inches (measured from the tip of its nose to the base of its tail) plus 6 inches, divided by 144. The regulations also require an inte- rior enclosure height at least 6 inches higher than the head of the tallest dog in the enclosure when in a normal standing position. These dimensions would seem to be just sufficient to allow a single dog to turn and lie down. In 1996 the National Research Council (NRC) Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals (NRC, 1996 ) provided weight-dependent minimum floor area space require- ments for dogs ranging from 0.74 m 2 for dogs under 15 kg through 1.1 m 2 for dogs up to 30 kg and 2.2 m 2 for over 30 kg. The Guide was revised in 2010 and, although the minimum space allowances were not changed, the new Guide promoted the use of social housing which, if implemented, would at least double the space available to each dog (NRC, 2010 ). The 2010 NRC space allowances are similar to those specified in Appendix A of the Council of Europes 1986 Convention for the Protection of Vertebrate Animals Used For Experimental and other Scientific Purposes (ETS 123), and Annex II of The 1986 European Directive 86/609/EEC. However, the UK has for some time required considerably larger space allowances for dogs used for research (4.5 m 2 for a pair of average-size adult beagles (Home Office, 1989 , 1995 ), and these allow- ances have also been adopted in New South Wales, Australia (NSW Agriculture Animal Research Panel, 1999 ). Both the European Convention and the European Directive have now been updated, to provide a minimum of 4.0 m 2 for one or two average-sized beagles with the aim of encouraging social housing. Recommendations for space allowances in other types of dog accommodation also vary. The UK Chartered Institute of Animal Health ( 1995) guidance for dog boarding kennels specifies a sleeping area of 1.9 m 2 and an exercise area of 2.46 m 2 for medium-sized dogs (total area 4.67 m 2), although the maximum number of dogs that can be housed in this area is not specified. The UK Government has published a voluntary Code of Practice on the welfare of dogs and cats in quarantine premises 9 that suggests a suitable size for a medium-sized dog is a sleeping area of at least 1.4 m 2 with a run at least 5.5 m 2 (total area 6.9 m 2). On the other hand, the British Veterinary Association ( 2000 ) guid-ance for breeding establishments gives no specific space recommendations, other than a minimum height of 1.8 m (to allow access by kennel staff), instead suggesting that dogs should be provided with an adequate sleeping area, and that adequate exercise areas must be provided for all kennels. In New South Wales, Australia, the code of practice for assistance dogs in correctional centers specifies a minimum floor space of 3.5 m 2 , with an exercise yard of at least 8 m 2 per dog (total area 12.5 m 2). 10 There is a link between space provided and the physical activity possible. It is often suggested that dogs need exercise, but in very small enclosures dogs do not, or cannot run (Hubrecht et al ., 1992 ). The United States Regulations require exercise programs for dogs, but Clark et al . ( 1991 ) showed little fitness benefit from a treadmill regime. For a dog the value of a walk lies in more than physical activity. Some dogs may enjoy exercise, but most probably derive more from exploring, examining and adding to the various scents on the way. Variability in regulatory space requirements refl ects the fact that there have been few studies on the subject for dogs (see Beerda et al . 1999a; Hetts et al ., 1992 ; Hubrecht et al ., 1992 ). Moreover, interpretation of research is diffi cult as space is often confounded with other factors such as social vs. single housing and stocking density. Realistically, it is unlikely that science will ever provide precise minimum dimensions for animal housing. Much depends on the shape of the space and what is provided within it, and it is always possible to argue that a few centimetres less or more would 9 https://www.gov.uk/pet-travel-quarantine#premises [accessed August 29, 2013]. > 10 www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/agriculture/livestock/animal-welfare/general/dogs-horses [accessed August 29, 2013]. > https://doi.org/10.1017/9781139161800.014 Published online by Cambridge University Press 287 Robert Hubrecht, Stephen Wickens and James Kirkwood not make any difference to the animal. Animals needs may also vary depending on age, gender or individual differences. Nonetheless, there are grounds for believing that some published minimum space allowances may be too small: 1. All of the minimum space allowances are comparatively small when considering the natural behav- ior of dogs. Feral dogs have been recorded with home ranges of 310 ha to 28.5 km 2 (Nesbitt, 1975; Nakada et al ., 1996; Pal et al ., 1998). The propensity of carnivores to show stereotyped behavior in zoos is correlated positively with home range size (Clubb & Mason, 2003), and may result from frustration of various motivations involved in the use of natural home ranges (Clubb & Vickery, 2006). 2. The dog is a social animal, and should, therefore, normally be housed socially (see Social needs, Section 14.6.2 below). Minimum space allowances that only provide space sufficient for one dog are, therefore, inappropriate. 3. Small cages or pens may not allow the dog to control its social contacts with other dogs within the enclosure. 4. Small cages or pens do not allow a functional division of space. 5. Small cages or pens do not provide sufficient room for enrichment items. 6. Small cages or pens restrict the dogs opportunities to express their normal behavioral repertoire. 7. Even in current UK laboratory housing with 4.5 m 2 floor space, some dogs develop behavioral abnormalities (Hubrecht, 1995a). Moreover there are some indications that dogs in very restricted housing show chronic signs of stress. A sensible approach to space requirements is to ask what functional resources the animals need (social and environmental, see below), and then to decide on the space required to accommodate them, taking into account the animals activity whilst using them. ## 14.6.2 Social needs As discussed earlier, dogs reared with human contact are likely to be motivated to interact with people. Human social contact reduces the cortisol stress response of dogs to stressors (Coppola et al ., 2006a; Hennessy et al ., 1998 ; Tuber et al ., 1996 ). It follows that human social contact and doghuman as well as dogdog socialization time are important considerations in management routines. In the past, socialization time with humans was often very limited in kennels (Hubrecht et al ., 1992 ; Hubrecht, 1995b ), but periods of socialization, during which dogs are allowed to run together and to interact with a caregiver, are now an established part of kennel routines in research establishments in the UK. Human contact can, however, be diffi cult and expensive to provide for any great duration. It is therefore important to consider how social needs can be addressed by hous- ing dogs in groups while bearing in mind that a dogs motivation for human socialization might differ to that for dog socialization. A social partner within the kennel provides more complexity, interest and variability than any non-animate provision. Nonetheless, the need for social housing is sometimes still questioned and so it is useful to briefly provide some justification. First, although the dogs social behavior differs from that of the grey wolf in several respects (Bradshaw & Rooney, Chapter 8 ), it remains a highly social animal, and a range of guides and regulations accept that social animals should normally be housed in compatible social groups (e.g. Annex III to European Directive 2010/63/EU; Bradshaw, 2011 ). Secondly, as previously discussed, many dogs kept as companion animals find it hard to cope with separation, seeming to experience fear, frustration and negative cognitive bias. Thirdly, dogs > https://doi.org/10.1017/9781139161800.014 Published online by Cambridge University Press 288 The welfare of dogs in human care housed singly in institutions seem to be more prone to develop abnormal behavior (Hetts et al ., 1992 ; Hubrecht et al ., 1992 ). 11 Social housing is probably now the norm, but for various reasons, for example, for the dogs safety, or for health or experimental reasons, dogs may be housed singly. However, experience shows that in many cases social housing for at least part of the day is a viable option. Dogs used in toxicology testing used to be housed singly throughout the day on the grounds that it was necessary to prevent the dogs from eating each others food, and to prevent dogs from eating test substances in anothers faeces or vomit. However, as a result of the experience of better laboratories, European legislation now specifies 4 hours as the maximum, beyond which authorization should be sought. There are few data to guide decisions regarding optimum group size in kennels. The natural social group size of feral dogs may be about 310 animals (Pal et al ., 1998). However, Hubrecht (1993) found that there was little difference in the time spent socializing between dogs housed in pairs, and dogs housed in larger groups, suggesting that pair housing may be an acceptable way of meeting dogs conspecific social requirements. It is now common practice to allow dogs exercise and social-ization periods with other dogs, and dogs seem to enjoy this, but it is not a compensation for inade- quate housing. For example, Clark et al . ( 1997 ) found that three 20-minute periods of socialization in a week were not enough to compensate for single housing in cages measuring 1.37 0.82 0.92 m. ## Social housing and aggression Social housing is usually a viable option, even in shelter environments where there is considerable turnover and the history of the dogs is not always known. Mertens & Unshelm (1996) showed that socially housed dogs settled 91% of their confrontations without aggression, and that social housing increased sociability. Nonetheless, aggression can result in serious injuries or death, so appropriate management strategies are necessary, and staff should understand the causes of aggression. Like other animals, dogs fight as a result of fear or when competing for limited or especially valuable resources. Aggression is also more likely at times when the dogs abilities or physiolog- ical status are changing, such as when reaching sexual maturity or prior to oestrus. Suggestions to avoid aggression include: ensuring that dogs are well socialized with other dogs, giving dogs opportunities to get to know each other before housing them together, ensuring that there are suffi-cient high-value resources (e.g. toys, chews, food bowls, etc.) for all the animals in the enclosure, and avoiding providing high-value items when the dogs are already excited (Hubrecht & Buckwell, 2004 ). Good kennel design should allow dogs to be separated when necessary. Pop-holes between adjacent enclosures allow this, and have the additional benefit that dogs can be allowed access to empty enclosures when the kennels are not full, increasing the size and complexity of the space available to them. Where dogs must be housed singly, then it may be beneficial to allow them visual contact with a conspecific. Single-housed dogs in shelters move to the front of their pens to observe other dogs, when this is possible (Wells & Hepper, 1998 ), although their motivation for seeking this visual contact is unclear. ## 14.6.3 Enhancing the enclosure for welfare The design of dog enclosures varies widely, from racked cages, to pens, to pens with access to indoor or outdoor runs. Generally, larger enclosures give the animals more choice, permit adequate enrich-ment, and allow staff to enter the enclosure to socialize with the animals. It is beneficial to design > 11 In Hubrechts study, social housing was counfounded with more available space, so both may have been important. > https://doi.org/10.1017/9781139161800.014 Published online by Cambridge University Press 289 Robert Hubrecht, Stephen Wickens and James Kirkwood dog enclosures so that staff can easily socialize with the dogs from both within and from outside the enclosure. It is considered better to encourage socialization at the dogs level rather than forcing the dog to jump up, as might happen if the access is over a barrier or low door. Enclosures should be designed to allow the dog a degree of choice and control. The enclosure should have areas where the dog can retreat to feel safe, and for different functions (e.g. sleeping, activity, elimination, etc.). Visual barriers or structures, or linked pens enable the dog to exert some control over its social interactions, but dogs should also have clear lines of sight out of the pens to provide them with some predictability. If this is not provided, then dogs at the far ends of rooms will often jump repetitively when personnel enter or pass the room, showing their motiva- tion to see out. Vision can be improved by using horizontal rather than vertical bars (taking care to ensure that they cannot be used by the dogs as a ladder), or by using glass between enclosures (Figure 14.2). ## Platforms Platforms within pens are a useful way of providing better sightlines out of the pen and have the added advantage of providing increased complexity and choice within the pen as well as opportu- nities for play and exercise (Hubrecht, 1993 ) (Figure 14.3 ). Dogs make extensive use of them, and they have now been widely adopted by the research industry. In cases where dogs may fail to use them, it may be that the dogs cannot easily access and negotiate the ramp or stairs due to their size, age or health. Although platforms may provide more usable space within a pen, it is our view that the platform area should not be used in calculations of pen area when complying with minimum space allowances. ## Outdoor runs Outdoor runs provide dogs with a more varied environment giving more choice of location, view- point, access to odors, etc. On the other hand, increased risk of disease through contact with wildlife, may rule them out in some circumstances. External runs may also be noisier as the dogs respond to events outside the run (Sales et al . 1997). Unfortunately, there has been little research on the benefits > (a) (b) > Figure 14.2 Vertical bars (a) reduce vision out of enclosure, while horizontal bars and a smaller room (b) provide much better visibility into and out of the pens. ( Robert Hubrecht.) > https://doi.org/10.1017/9781139161800.014 Published online by Cambridge University Press 290 The welfare of dogs in human care of access to the outdoors. Spangenberg et al . ( 2006 ) found that dogs increased their activity when provided with an outside run; however, this may have been simply due to the increased space avail- able. If dogs are housed entirely indoors, it seems reasonable to argue that greater attention should be given to providing them with an interesting and stimulating environment. ## Toys and chews Toys and chews provide dogs with something that they can manipulate and interact with. A variety of types are commercially available, some of which can be used in play but may also be used for chewing or destruction. Indeed, destructible toys seem to be preferred to more robust ones (Pullen et al . 2010 ). Flavour and presentation may matter. DeLuca & Kranda ( 1992 ) found that beagles, but not hounds, lost interest in ham-flavoured chews after a couple of day. However, another study found that suspended chews, particularly those tasting of food, such as ham-flavoured chews or those made of rawhide, were extensively used by beagles in research establishments, and this con- tinued over periods of months (Hubrecht, 1993 , 1995a). Suspension of the chews so that they could be chewed on the ground in a normal fashion but spring off the floor when the dog had finished, proved successful as the chews were used, remained clean, did not block the drains and could not be monopolized by individual dogs. Studies of dogs in shelters suggest that in this context toys are less useful (Pullen et al ., 2010; Wells, 2004; Wells & Hepper, 1992), perhaps because shelter dogs differ from dogs used in research (stress levels, breed, age, experience, duration of stay, etc.), or because of methodological differences. In the shelter studies, the toys were necessarily presented to the dogs for a much shorter period than for the dogs used in research so there would have been less time for them to become familiar with > Figure 14.3 A platform provides extra choice and complexity in a dog pen. ( Robert Hubrecht.) > https://doi.org/10.1017/9781139161800.014 Published online by Cambridge University Press 291 Robert Hubrecht, Stephen Wickens and James Kirkwood the items. There were also differences in toy type and presentation. Pullen et al . (2010) found that dogs in shelters and at nutrition research establishments preferred toys placed on the floor rather than those suspended. However, these toys were chosen specifically not to taste of food, were presented for short periods rather than being permanently available, and were suspended at collar height rather than in a more natural chewing position. Although the terms toy and chew are often used interchangeably, it is best to look at toys and chews as different categories. Available evidence suggests that toy items are not greatly used by dogs in kennels, but dogs, and particularly young dogs, are motivated to chew objects. Indeed, if dogs are not provided with suitable items they may chew undesirable items of the enclosure or its furniture. Hence, if the goal is to satisfy a dogs motivation to chew, and to occupy its time, then chewable, appropriately suspended items remain a good option that can be used in many circum-stances. Care should be taken to choose chews that are as far as possible safe, i.e. non-toxic and not likely to cause choking or obstruction. Chews can be provided for dogs used in toxicology studies as long as a certificate of analysis is available. Other items that can be included in dog housing include water baths, ropes and pulls (Loveridge, 1998), but there is a general need to evaluate and validate many of the enrichment items and devices used with dogs (Hubrecht & Buckwell, 2004; Pullen et al ., 2010). ## 14.6.4 Relating husbandry provisions to the dogs sensory world ## Vision Many commercial dog toys are brightly coloured. The dog generally has good vision (Miller and Murphy, 1995 ) but like many other mammals it is dichromatic, probably giving it colour vision very similar to that of a human suffering from deuteranopia 12 (Jacobs et al ., 1993 ; Neitz et al ., 1989 ). People with this form of colour blindness have difficulty in distinguishing red, orange, yellow and green, so the use of these colours on dog toys has more to do with human preferences than consider- ations of their attractiveness to dogs. Television has been suggested as enrichment for some captive animals but, when this was tried in a shelter, television proved to have only marginal value for the dogs, though perhaps worth providing on the grounds that it might encourage rehoming (Graham et al ., 2005a ). ## Olfaction Dogs are macro-osmatic, capable of detecting substances 1000 to 100 000 000 times lower in con-centration than humans can detect (reviewed in Thorne, 1995 ). We micro-osmatic humans may, therefore, underestimate the importance of olfactory stimuli with respect to dog housing, and we do not know how odors of disinfectants, air fresheners, scents and perfumes could affect dogs. Odors are used in social communication by dogs both between dogs and when they interact with humans (Bradshaw & Nott, 1995 ; Bradshaw & Rooney, Chapter 8 ; Filiatre et al ., 1991 ; Millot, 1994 ; Millot et al ., 1987 ; Sommerville & Broom, 1998 ). Odors may be detected directly from the other animal, or from marks or other traces in the environment. There is some evidence that housing dogs in groups as small as two increases the attention that dogs pay to odors left on the substrate (Hubrecht et al ., 1992), and this may help keep the dogs occupied. Therefore, while hygiene is important, unneces- sary removal of scent marks should be avoided. 12 A colour vision deficiency for which one cause is lack of, or poorly functioning, green retinal photoreceptors. > https://doi.org/10.1017/9781139161800.014 Published online by Cambridge University Press 292 The welfare of dogs in human care There has been very limited work on olfaction as enrichment. Graham et al . ( 2005b ) found that lavender and chamomile odors decreased barking and increased resting behavior, whilst rosemary and peppermint heightened activity. Other more pungent smells might well be of more interest to dogs, but probably for aesthetic reasons there has been no research on these. Dog appeasing pher-omone (DAP) is a synthetic odor, based on fatty acids produced by sebaceous glands in the inter-mammary sulci of post-partum female dogs. Mills et al . ( 2006 ) have shown that DAP reduces fear in dogs at veterinary surgeries, and Levine et al . ( 2007 ) found that DAP, used in conjunction with a desensitization CD, reduced fear responses to fireworks. These results suggest that DAP might also be useful in other areas of dog husbandry. ## Hearing and noise Dogs have much more acute hearing than humans and can hear sounds up to four times quieter than humans can detect (Fay, 1988) and of much higher frequency (up to 50 kHz.) They are most sensitive to noise between 1 and 20 kHz and the maximum energy of a dogs bark is within this region (between 500 Hz and 16 kHz). Dog kennels can be extremely noisy places, and as noise is a stressor for humans and other species, it is a potential problem for dog and human hearing and stress levels within kennels (Coppola et al ., 2006b; Hubrecht et al ., 1997; Sales et al ., 1997). The dogs themselves produce much of the noise, but metal cages, latches, and tools such as pres-sure washers can also be significant sources. Dog kennels are often built using durable materials that are also very efficient sound reflectors. This results in slow decay of sound, so increasing exposure. Noise levels in kennels can be reduced by appropriate design and management techniques (see Hubrecht & Buckwell, 2004). Sound absorbing materials are important, as is limiting the numbers of dogs in any particular room within a building. Eight pairs of dogs to a room may be about the right number to keep noise levels low and limit the spread of barking. Consideration should also be given to avoiding activities that stimulate barking (leading a dog past other pens often leads to noise). Music is often played within kennels, as much for the staffs as for the animals benefit, although it is often reported that background noise helps to prevent animals being startled by sud- den sounds. There has been little research on music or other sound as enrichment for dogs; Wells et al . (2002) found that classical music appeared to relax dogs in shelters. # 14.7 Transport Knowledge of the hazards of transport is important. Welfare organizations mount periodic cam- paigns warning of the risks of leaving dogs in cars in the sun, and draw attention to the importance of belts for dogs in cars. When dogs are shipped or transported commercially there is a potential for undetected welfare problems. The International Air Transport Association (IATA) provides regularly updated regulations pertaining to the transport of live animals by air and further guidance relating to all forms of transport are provided in Swallow et al . ( 2005 ) and White et al . ( 2010 ). The guidance in these latter publications is specifically for the transport of laboratory animals but many of the general principles apply to the transport of dogs for other purposes. The increased transport of companion dogs subjects them to greater risks of infectious diseases (e.g. heart worm and rabies). Controls may include vaccination or quarantine, of which the latter may have welfare consequences due to separation from the owner and prolonged housing in kennels (see Housing section). > https://doi.org/10.1017/9781139161800.014 Published online by Cambridge University Press 293 Robert Hubrecht, Stephen Wickens and James Kirkwood 14.8 Conclusion Since the publication of the first edition of this book there has been considerable growth in scientific interest in animal welfare, and some of this has benefited the dog. Nonetheless, despite the dogs special status, and remarkable new research on its cognitive abilities (Range and Viranyi, Chapter 8 ), and genetics (van den Berg, Chapter 5 ), the dog is still under-represented in welfare research when compared with farm animals and other species such as rodents used in research. 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