Transcript for:
Ch 2 Overview of Fundamental Chemistry Concepts

go all right so again yeah today we're going to go ahead we're going to get into chapter two and again chapter two basically just deals with chemistry so hopefully again this is a recap for most of us we should have seen some of this before at some point um but if not again we'll just kind of go through the concepts you know as as we need to but the first thing we got to talk about again is just chemistry does anybody kind of know how we Define chemistry now basically just kind of like to give it a basic definition it's all the elements all the elements and how they interact with the world with the world all right so that's kind of the basic way that we can Define uh chemistry we're going to look at all these guys up here in the periodic table and then how do they actually enact with the world and what are some of these different things again that can happen along the way so there are a couple of uh definitions that we need to know as we go through and we talk about chemistry so we'll start out with matter does anybody know how we Define matter anything with mass that also takes space right anything that has mass and takes up space there we go can anybody tell me that three basic forms of matter solid liquid and gas solid liquid and gas solid liquid and gas right those are the three basic forms that we can see matter in there are others if you want to go into more detail but those are kind of the basic ones that we are going to worry about now when we talk about matter we should also know what an atom is and really when we talk about atoms again we just consider them the basic unit of matter so the basic unit of matter is an easy way to define them basically just saying again that anything that takes up space and has mass it's made of these guys on the periodic table so and again for our class atoms and elements are going to be used in a changeably again if you do take a chemistry class it might be you know there's a slight difference between two but we're not going to really worry about that for for our scale all right but everybody okay so far with matter Adams that kind of stuff oh you're good all right next up then we're going to just quickly discuss the difference between a mo and a compound can anybody actually tell me what the difference is between these that's a very fancy chemical definition for we're going to have a little bit slightly different of a definition for it for art class but yeah you are right molecules generally cannot be broken down by chemical means we're just going to compare this in terms of atoms though so a molecule is basically just two or more well you two or more of the same atom bound together so like hydrogen oxygen nitrogen they tend to like to just kind of stick to each other and that again is what we would consider a molecule a compound is then be a little bit different it's just going to be two or more different atoms bound together so two or more different atoms found together can anybody think about some compounds H2O water right so water is an example of a compound right and really other than for this slide where we give them the definitions after that we're just going to use the terms interchangeably because again for our level it doesn't really matter most people just call compounds molecules or molecules compounds anyways so they are technically different again but really we're not going to be super worried about their their big difference other than just knowing the two definitions okay let's go ahead and move on to basically talk talking about Major versus minor uh elements then that we have does anybody know what the six major elements are hyrogen is one let's see you let's do this major elements all right make up 90 to 95% of living organisms basically meaning again that if you are alive you are made of 90 to 95% of these six things right I think you got most of them has anybody heard about kops before maybe because it makes about as much sense as chemistry right so right so what are the what are these six here hydrogen nitrogen oxygen phosphorus and sulfur there we go carbon hydrogen nitrogen oxygen phosphorus phosphorus there we go and sulfur all right so those are again the six major elements that we have and again any living organism is basically 90 to 95% this stuff right here um there are two of these are required for a compound to be considered an organic molecule or organic compound does anybody know which two of these are required exactly you have to have both carbon and hydrogen in order to be considered organic so kind of with that in mind again if you don't have those two you're considered anorganic right so when we're looking at something like uh this guy does anybody know what that is C6 h126 what was that I should know it is a glucose glucose right so it's a simple sugar basically there's a couple other ones that have the same uh chemical formula but normally we say say that when the sco go right which is a very common organic molecule that we use all the time right compared to something like water does have hydrogen in it but no carbon so it is considered an inorganic compound that we have all right we all have the minor elements and when we talk about Minor elements again these are basically all the other things we don't necessarily need to give them a big definition anything I just kind of want to see if anybody can think of any other minor elements that might be inside of the what are some of those other things that we have sodium okay sodium's A big one what else potassium calcium pottassium calcium is another big one iron I don't remember how many pluses we have some iodine in there too huh think about a couple more maybe chlorine chlorine is another big one at like magium whole bunch of ones right but again yeah mum it's another one that we have em I think is manganese right we set on here I think that yeah ammo is mum manganese is MN yeah there a whole bunch of different ones again that we have um but yeah the minor elements again that's what makes up that last 5% and of course even under the minor elements you can break those down into the major and minor ones depending on if there's more than five grams basically inside of the body or all right next up we're going to start talking about the atoms uh specifically so we're going to draw an atom draw a circle want to draw a plus one I'm going to draw one without anything thing and I'm going to draw a little guy with a negative charge here so let's label these three guys what are their names the is a proton the nothing is a neutron and minus is there we go right so these are the three types of atomic particles that we have protons neutrons and electrons does anybody know what we call this guy where the electrons are floating around no okay we got quite a few quite a few names for it so the veence shell specifically as the outermost one we'll talk more about that when we start talking about bonds uh so you had an electron cloud I tend to use the term shell or orbit those are other terms again that you can use for that but cloud is also acceptable what did you say Madison so whole bunch of different terms basically for the same thing what do we call this centerpiece nucleus a nucleus right so that's the nucleus where that are protons and neutrons are located so on the exam again I could give you a diagram like this and it's like tell me what are the different things or I could ask you based on definitions pick out the different kinds of atomic particles so if we just kind of Define an electron it has a negative charge and has a mass of zero atomic mass units and again it is found in the shells or the orbits when we look at a proton it has a positive charge it weighs one atomic mass unit and it is found again within the nucleus neutrons again have no charge they weigh one atomic mass unit and they're found within the nucleus so again if I were to Define that say you're looking at an atomic particle again it has no charge one in nucleus you should say it's a neutron or what you could also see is a question on the exam that would say pick everything that matches a neutron and then you would have a whole bunch of items and you would pick three of those that's a multiple answer question so those are kind of some different ways that you could see stuff about our little Adams okay all right and so I guess everybody pretty good with just a basic outline of our atom nothing too crazy okay second I just to write all this stuff down then we will move on next up the thing to then start talking about is basically again if I were to give you one of these guys you should be able to tell me again the number of protons neutrons electrons that are located within that specific atom let's do copper just to start out with so 6429 so we have 6429 cuu and I get just kind of to start out with that is the atomic symbol again generally designated based off of the letters that we have in the name of the atom or whoever found it gets to kind of have their initials with it right we have the atomic weight or atomic mass again depending on who you ask there's going to be some slight differences between those two for our class that's basically the same but atomic weight or atomic mass is just your protons plus your neutrons and then we have our atomic number and your atomic number is always going to be equal to the number of protons that you have in your element everybody kind of right with how that sort of works out okay in that case I want you to tell me how many protons neutrons and electrons are in this version of cber 29 protons 35 neutrons and 29 electrons okay how'd you get the neutrons neutrons because it's um 64 you said that's 35 I'm g go ahead and assume your math is good it's a bit early to be doing that right but yeah so 35 for that and then what you say for electrons 29 why are you saying 29 electrons because there's no charge given so therefore it's neutral exactly that is another one of our rules in any uncharged so if you have an uncharged atom meaning that there is no plus or minus up here in that case again protons are equal to your electrons in that case if you have an uncharged atom we'll start doing some math here in a minute where we're going to ask for charges to it but now we've F so far just with the basic outline of again I were to give you this and then tell you give me these three we feel like we can do that just Baseline okay in that case again let's do a couple on set of charged and then we'll start talking about how we impart those charges on our different elements so let's do barium 137 56 is that what it was 137 56 B A plus 2 it's what that one's going to be all right we'll move that over here so we can do a couple of protons neutrons electrons okay how many protons 56 56 right because that's the number that we have okay I'm we going to do a bit of math for the neutrons how many neutrons are we looking at 81 so I think somebody said that right all right how many electrons 54 54 and how did you come up with 54 it's a two charge so that me's two more exactly right protons have positive charges electrons have negative charges so if you're plus two has to be two more pluses than negatives does it seem to make sense perfect perfect okay is everybody good right in that case let's kind of do one that's a little bit opposite let's do this one and timy that's a that's a fun one all right 122 51 12251 sp sp minus three what that one should be right yeah it's a minus three okay protons neutrons electrons protons is 51 okay and neutrons is 71 yes electr are4 54 electrons how is everybody feeling about that math so everybody sing again this case here you have a minus three so you have to have three more negative particles than you do positives which is why we have 54 electrons compar to our 51 protons okay how are we feeling about doing these calculations do we feel that we can do that do we need to do another example good Char yes so you you're still kind of wondering about the math on that or yeah okay so on either one or just either one either one okay so if we start up here uh on the top it's kind of backwards positive means you subtract okay and then negative means you add and again if you think about it I don't know if you can visualize it in your head but when we looked at it again the nucleus has all the protons and neutrons and then there's a bunch of negative charges floating around it so all we're saying is just that if it's a plus two you have two more pluses on the inside then we do negatives on the outside that's why the number is too less and then with the minus three just have three more negatives floating around and do posi on inside so it's kind of it can be a little bit weird of a concept but basically the signs become opposites negative means you add positive means you subtract okay let's go ahead let's see Isotopes all right so before we actually talk about Isotopes I want to go back and look at this guy so again we have protons we have neutrons and we have electrons we are not allow to change the number of protons in an atom and can anybody tell me what would happen if we did change the number of protons in an atom did change the element it would change the element Al together right so if I have copper that's the one we're looking at right so copper is over here if I were to add another proton to it it becomes snc can't do that because you're completely changing the element all together however when it comes to neutrons and electrons there are ways for us to change to number those inside of an element so let's talk about Isotopes real bass and the way that Isotopes works all right Isotopes these are elements with the same number of protons number of protons but a different number of neutrons so one of the more common ones that we see is carbon so carbon is 126 C but I can make it a 136 C or I can make it a 146 C so what if I changed again between my different versions carbon here how does the 12 six compar to the 136 it's heav the 13 six is right because why it's got an extra Neutron it's got an extra Neutron in there right and then the 146 is even heavier because it has yet another Neutron inside of the nucleus now does anybody know what happens when you start adding more neutrons to an element tends to become reactive more often than not it become sort of radioactive and we actually use those in quite a few different uh medical practices things like radiation treatment is often done with something like a radioactive isotope basically blast cancer cells with it then to cells other ways that we tend to use Isotopes a lot are for things like angiographs so anybody know what an angiograph is oh you ever seen those in like cool pictures of like all the veins and arteries and stuff all over the heart that's an angiograph basically what you can do is that you put a Dye inside of the body that has these radioactive isotopes in it then you shine a specific light on it that makes that light up and then again if you're looking at those arteries and veins you can see if there's a blockage because it's not going where it's supposed to so we use that stuff again all the time in medicine the other big place that we use it outside of medicine is with things like carbon dating because we know how long it takes for these different isotopes to break down so if you find one you just look how decomposed is it and it tells you how old something is so we use again Isotopes all the time what are we feeling about what an isotope is seems all right okay it could be either a definition or it could be something again like you would see like the the 126 136 146 and that's be something like water and these compared to each other Isotopes okay the next thing we then have to talk about is basically how do we change the number of electrons inside of an atom and in order to do that we first have to talk about what we call the duet and the octet rule does anybody know what these two rules refers to electrons okay it does refer to electrons but specifically not exactly right so when we have an atom the outermost shell or the reactive shell again is what we call the veent Shell and basically the way that this works out is that for very small atoms they have a very small shell that can only hold two electrons so if you're very small you want to only have two electrons in your outermost shell however if you are bigger and you have a second shell that one can hold eight so you want to have eight and even the ones that get bigger and bigger that can hold many many more electrons you still only want to have eight in yet that veent shell so duet rule is basically just that atoms want to have two electrons in their veence shell and then for the octet rule again it's basically the same same definition except we're just going to say eight so atoms want to have eight electrons in there bance shell right so the definitions are basically the same again it just applies to howc the adets really again only the very first ones are going of want to follow the duet rule everything else is going to want to follow the octet rule and the main reason again why our elements want to follow these rules is that it makes them non-reactive unless you're following or satisfying the duet or octet rule you're somewhat reactive and you want to bind so in order to stabilize our atoms again they want to just B and follow satisfi these rules basically they kind of want to look like these guys out here does anybody know what we call the element in this section of the periodic table all the way on the right those are the noble gases right because the noble gases naturally satisfy the octed rule they just naturally do it and by doing that again they are naturally stable so they don't like binding with anybody else because they are too good basically for other atoms but everybody else wants to be like noble gases okay so let's start talking about the way that we can actually satisfy these rules by reform different kinds of bonding so the first type of bond that we're going to talk about is the ionic bond and when it comes to an an ionic bond this is where we're going to donate slash except electrons basically what I'm saying here is that I'm going to take one or more electrons from one atom strip them off of that atom and give it to and as long as there's a nice balance between that everybody's going to become table so one of the most common places where we see this is with sodium chloride so what is sodium chloride salt salt right and the basic way the salt is formed again is that we take some sodium which has 11 protons in it we take some chlorine has 17 protons so just to make it easy I'm just going to say plus 11 so I'm not trying to draw out the entire nucleus again my first shell can only hold two electrons so I put two electrons in the first shell my second one can only hold eight so I'm going to go ahead and put eight in there and then I'm going to draw one more and for that one here I'm just going to go ahead and make a little red guy like that everybody kind of all right with how that's set up now for chlorine chlorine again was a plus 17 so I'm going to draw my first shell I'm going to put in two draw my second shell I'm going to put in eight and then I can put in my last 17 or not 17 sorry my last seven electrons in the last shell so that I have again an equal number of electrons and protons all right now again my goal is to satisfy the octet rule for both of these atoms which means for sodium I can either pick up seven electrons or I can get rid of one which one sounds easier get rid of one right and then for chlorine I can get rid of seven or pick up one which one's going to be easier get one get one right so it's a nice equal balance between the two so what is going to happen is that my little uh electron here is just going to float over down and as he floats over again that's not what I meant to [Music] do actually do that can I take this off I cannot got do this this there so he's going to float over and now that he floats over again when we're looking at sodium it now has eight El in the Shell chlorine now has eight electrons in the ve shell everybody's Happ however can anybody tell me what's going to happen to the charge of sodium it's gonna become positive get a plus one right because it now has one more proton than it does electrons what about chlorine it's NE because it has one more electron than it does protons right and since oppos set subract there we go now we have our bond that is established between the two and that is how Sol basically how always feeling about ionic bond amazing amazing all right awesome right so again on the exam you could have a picture that looks something like this it will probably be prettier because it's not me that made it or it could be a definition again something like a bond that's established by the donation and acceptance of neutrons between two atoms right feeling pretty good okay in that case let's move to the coent bond and start talking about how a coent bond happens Co valent Bond all right so with the ionic bond again we donated and accepted electrons or calent Bond we are going to oops all over the place we're going to share electrons so so when we looked again at the the Orbits for the shells that we have basically we're going to have two atoms that are going to be really close to each other and our little electrons are going to kind of do this figure eight between the two so it's going to be shared between them now when it comes to Calum bonds again they're both polar and non-polar coent bonds when we're looking at a non-polar Co valent Bond we have equal sharing basically meaning that the electron roughly the same amount of time between the two atoms whereas in a polar coal Bond there is unequal sharing so in this case here again with our unequal sharing one of the atoms is going to hold on to that electron more than the other one and because of that we start getting some extra charge or something there but we'll get to again so one of the more common ways again to display a nonpolar equalent bond is just by drawing atmospheric hydrogen so again hydrogen it's a plus one so we do+ one do a little circle we do another plus one another Circle that kind of overlaps and then each of them have one electron and they bind those two electrons kind of sharing between the two in this sense now again since they're both sharing an electron with each other they both satisfy the do kind of again appear both of them have two electrons in their shell everybody's happy that's stable seems okay to everybody how that works out okay let's do an easy polar coent bond then so let's do water water has oxygen in it again which is a plus eight so if I fill out my first shell I can only put two in it then I've tried to fill up my next Shell which can hold eight but I only have six of these left everybody good with how that would look all right then just to give it a little bit different of a color we're going to draw in our hydrogen here plus one and a plus one over here so we'll draw these in blue I guess just to kind of match it so one oxygen two hydrogen molecules each hydrogen again is sharing one electron and the oxygen are going to sharing kind of those two electron two hydrogens so what we're looking at here again is that now each of our hydrogen molecules appear to be satisfying the D Rule and the oxygen appears to be satisfying the octet rule everybody is Happy Everything is stable however again the sharing is not equal because when we look at how big oxygen is compared to how big water is it's going to take longer for that electron to make it around the oxygen than it is around the hydrogen seems to make sense how that would work out so because of that we tend to say that the oxygen becomes slightly electronegative whereas our hydrogens become slightly electropositive so again a little Squigly deal means Electro basically just meaning that on average the oxygen is more negative than it is positive and on average the hydrogens are more positive than the AR negative how does everybody feel about that concept beautiful beautiful everybody's good make sense to everybody okay because it's going to be important with all the water stuff we have to talk about here in a minute because this concept right here is what imparts all the properties that water basically has is this Crystal Clear to everybody or we a little shaky we're good as clear as me all right good deal okay because basically what can happen is that the electronegative oxygen can bind to the electropositive hydrogen of other water molecules and that is what we call a hydrogen bond so a hydrogen bond is basically just a bond between and electropositive hydrogen [Music] and a Electro I guess and Electro negative atom this is most commonly oxygen is the one that's going to be electr negative sometimes n nen we'll see that a little bit again when we discuss like DNA and stuff like that we start talking about the way the DNA is made some of the hydrogen bonds and stuff that basically hold DNA together but uh everybody kind of okay with that idea so Electro negative oxygens are going to bind to these Electro positive hydrogens basically again to show that I'm just going to draw our little molecule again kind of like this Z I'm going to put positive in there going to put a negative in here and then because I can just go to duplicate a whole bunch of them and kind of put them sort of all over the place basically again what we're saying here is that the positives are going to try to attract to these negatives and as they do that again we form bonds so this guy right here is a hydrogen bond and hydrogen bonds again are basically what um applies most of the different properties again that we see when we discuss water you say what's that what did you just say it basically imparts most of the properties that water has so since water has these hydrogen bonds water can do a whole bunch of stuff which is kind of the next thing for us to talk about is all the quanties of water all right so how we feeling again about the concept of the hydrogen bond seems pretty good okay in that case let's talk about the six types or the six properties of water that we have so the properties of water all right number one water is a polar solvent water is a polar solvent can anybody tell me the difference between a solvent and a solute a solvent is what is being like what the solution or what is whatever what is being dissolved is being dissolved in yes a solute is what is being dissolved a solvent is a dissolving agent basically again in this case here if you put salt in the water what happens to the salt yeah breaks down right so your salt is your solute the water is the Sal vent and again the reason why that water is a polar solvent is because it has those slightly Electro negative electropositive charges basically takes your salt which just positive negative charge and breaks it apart and that's the basic way that works however nonpolar Solutions again or things that are hydrophobic what happens to that so you put grease in water doesn't mix right it kind of mixes little grease Bubbles and things like that and again that's because water can't break down stuff that is naturally hydrophobic all right uh number two sure I do some water here cesan Ates that's right okay so water is cohesive we're just going to put in parentheses self and adhesive and we'll put in parentheses other okay so water has cohesive properties this basically means that water binds to water anybody ever tried to overfill a cup because why not try to see how much water you can get in there right basically the reason why that you can actually put a little bubble at the top of your cup is because the water molec ules are trying to pull the other water molecules to the middle and that's like cohesive property right water clings to itself adhesive properties is how water clings to other things right so if you have a glass with i in it what tends to happen to that glass you have a glass ice water on the side what happens to the glass condens right you get condensation on the outside right that's those adhesive properties it starts clinging to that glass and eventually it's going to start clinging up to itself this start dripping down and making a mess but that's basically just quick way of showing again cohesion versus adhesion okay one that kind of goes along with the cohesive property is water has a high surface tension surface tension there we go basically what we're saying here again is that if you have to break through water you have to break those hydrogen bonds right anybody been watching the Olympics maybe a little bit I know n of you ever seen again the swimmers when they watch them in slow motion coming out of the water there's that film of water around them before they actually come out of the water that's this property right here basically again you got to break through all those bonds to actually come out of the water it's also why things like water striders or water skimmers again the little guys that run on water little insects I se those before right they don't just fall to the water it's also why if you B flop on water it hurts right it's your nice big surface and you got to get through all that right so lots of again ways to describe that one okay four and five kind of go hand in hand uh it's just really how much you're trying to change water from one state to another so water has a high heat capacity water has a high heat Capac capity and water has a high heat of vaporization so okay those two kind of go hand in hand basically what we're saying here is that it takes a lot of energy in order to heat up water and the main thing here again is that if you look at number five if we're trying to vaporize water it just means we're trying to take it from a liquid and turn it into a gas right we're trying to boil it and the reason why it takes so much energy to do is that not only do you have to break the bonds between the oxygen and the hydrogen you also have to break all the hydrogen bonds first so you have two layers of bonds both a hydrogen bond and a calent bond that you have to break in order for water to actually start eing up kind of why again we use water as a coolant all the time because it's just one of the Coolin there is all right the last one is always defined kind of in a silly way uh basically this one just says that solid water what's another term for solid water ice ice right ice is less dense than liquid water or just you know water and again the main reason why that this happens is due to the hydrogen bonds so what actually happens here is that normally the hydrogen bonds makes everything cling together and sit down nice and tight however whenever you start freezing water those hydrogen bonds actually space everything out and it makes a nice pattern so what you end up with is basically a lattice and because you now have a lattice of these water molecules with those hydrogen bonds that basically put everything in this nice pattern you get a lot of extra space and all of this extra space again in between the different molecules that we have is ice floats this makes it lighter than water how we feeling about the properties of water seems all right okay we're going to go ahead then move into our next topic so we're going to somewhat shift gears a little bit and we're going to get into chemical reactions and start talking about the way that those work out o chemical reactions all right so when we were talking about chemical re actions again we're can do just a very basic one A + B is going to yield AB just as again a very basic chemical reaction can anybody tell me what we call the things on the left side of our equation react these are our reactants right so we have our reactants and then what's all the stuff on the other side those are your products right so we have reactants and we have products can anybody tell me if this is an anabolic or a catabolic reaction anabol anabolic what makes you say anabolic because I think a catabolic reaction breaks them down that's exactly right so just to make it quick anabolic reactions build catabolic reactions break so again we are anabolic going this way but if it were to go the other way it would be catabolic because we would be breaking a larger item down into a smaller into multiple smaller products basically all right some of the other stuff we do need to worry about because um for some reason we couldn't just have one term for all of this stuff here we have to have multiple terms can I just move this down it's all stick together so some other terms that we have for anabolic reactions these could also be called dehydration synthesis reactions whereas catabolic reactions are also sometimes referred to as hydrolysis reactions a lot of times the difference in terminology just kind of depends on exactly who you're talking to and often times like anabolic catabolic is used a lot with chemical reactions or metabolic reactions whereas dehydration synthesis and hydrolysis reactions we use that terminology a little bit more when we're building the macromolecules which we'll talk about towards the end of our our chat today we'll kind of talk about how we take monomers and convert them into polymers and things like that all right how we kind of feeling about just a basic outline again of chemical reactions reactants versus products pretty good some of our terminology that we have okay next thing to then discuss are another set terms that basically mean the same but they like to do these so we can apply math to the concept because it doesn't like adding math to things right so we can also have exergonic or what's called exothermic reactions and we can have endergonic or endothermic reactions so a little bit all right so often times when we're talking about an exonic reaction or an exothermic reaction these tend to be catabolic in nature they are most often catabolic they tend to release energy relase energy which often times happen when you break a bond considering that they are exothermic what kind of energy do you think they tend to release them most heat right and then lastly they tend to be spontaneous because they tend to have enough energy to actually just naturally occur whenever the right things come together on the other hand again we have endergonic reactions these are basically just the opposite so these tend to be anabolic in nature and often times again whenever you are building something you need an inut of energy so these tend to require energy and they tend to be not spontaneous because again they tend to require some sort of input of energy for them to occur all right now the last thing then to kind of discuss on this topic here is that if I were to give you a set of reactants and products I would need you to be able to tell me is this an exonic or an endergonic reaction so let's just say again just for all intents and purposes uh we have a plus b is supposed to become ab and you have 10 energy just to give energy a a number and you have a requirement of 20 the way that we basically look at this again is that spontaneous reactions tend to have a higher free energy on the reactant side than they do on the product side whereas um non-spontaneous reactions again they have a higher free energy on the product side than they do on the reactant side so basically in order to calculate this you need your free energy of the product minus the free energy of your reactant if that number is POS positive it's spontaneous if the number or sorry if that number is positive it's not spontaneous if the number is negative it is spontaneous so if I'm looking at this calculation right here do this a spontaneous or nonspontaneous reaction nonspontaneous right because 20 minus 10 is 10 it is a positive number and because of that this reaction would be endergonic how is everybody feeling about that does that make sense or does that not make sense can we call exothermic and endothermic though we can do that as well I like those terms better too right so again this is an endothermic reaction because it requires an input of energy does that make sense to everybody or again is that kind of weird good okay let's do another example then so let's just say R into some purposes right we have that what are we looking up with this reaction here by one right so again if you were to take 55 minus 56 you would get1 it does not matter how much you exceed the threshold if you exceed the threshold your reaction going occur that's how most chemical reactions are basically set up right so this would be an exothermic reaction because that negative one is the extra energy that some extra energy into the environment is everybody feeling all right on this concept here do we need to explain this more you said the second one exothermic right again if your number comes up negative so 55us 56 that's a negative number that makes it exothermic it's basically it does not matter how negative it is it just means you're expelling extra energy okay thumbs up for everybody good deal because that ties us into kind of the next thing and that is how we actually utilize this concept again inside the body to dve most of the reactions so we're going to talk about what we call coupled reactions all right and the way that a coupled reaction works out is basically you use an exothermic reaction WR like that to drive an endothermic reaction reaction there we go right so I'm going to go ahead and I'm going to use an exothermic reaction in order to release enough energy to drive my endothermic reaction everybody kind of right with what we're setting up so let's go back to our a plus b yields ab and again we said that if this was 10 and that was 20 that reaction is going to be unable to occur right it's not spontaneous we're going to need some kind of input of energy in order for us to tip the scales so that we can hit that 20 Mark does anybody know what is the most common uh compound that we use in the body to dve reactions okay so enzymes help in some way but we use a different molecule a different compound what's that thing that's made in the mitochondria the PowerHouse of the cell it is the PowerHouse of the cell but what does it make oh ATP right so ATP is the energy currents you have to sell it's a den phosphate because if we were to take that bond between the second and the third phosphate it carries a bunch of stored energy break that and boom all that energy is released so if I have my little ATP my ATP molecule is going to come down to my reaction it's going to split and it's going to become an ADP and a den is in diphosphate and our inic phosphate right so I just took I had three phosphates I broke one of them off and in doing so I'm inputting energy so in this case here let's just say that since HP carries a lot of energy it put in an extra 100 energy into my reaction lots and lots of energy was expelled my reaction G to happen now oh so basically this is just taking like that's what that is I then is in triphosphate this is oops let me do my a first here so this is a DP plus a phosphate so all I did was literally just like I cut it right here that's all I did and again when you break a bond you release energy so now my reactants all of a sudden have 10 energic and whatever we want to call that and since they only need 20 my reactors going to occur no problem and that's how a couple the reactions work out again we have these exothermic reactions a lot of times again it's ATP um gra and phosphate again is another one that we use quite a bit in order to do that but either way again we can break these bonds release the energy and then we can drive these endothermic reactions how is everybody kind of feeling about the the way that that works out seems pretty good okay last kind of chemical reaction we're then going to talk about are exchange reactions what do you think is going to happen in an exchange reaction they move they exchange one or more ATS okay right stuff gets exchanged right so one of the easiest way to show this is if you basically add an acid to a base does anybody know what you make if you add an acid to a base salt and water salt and water right so in this case here let's take this guy hydrochloric acid let's add hydrochloric acid to sodium hydroxide that would then give me uh sodium chloride plus water everybody kind of right with that basically what's going to happen is again I'm going to cut here I'm going to cut there then my hydrogen is going to come over there my hydroxide is going to come over there and then my chlorine come over there with my sodium basically again all I have done is that I just split apart my compounds and then I mix the things together I exchanged some different parts to it and by doing that again we have done an exchange reaction we're gonna have like single versus double or is it just exchange as a it just be exchange it just be exchange reactions yeah so again you could see you know again something like this kind of equation or something like that like that or again it would be a definition you know was like a reaction in which two or more atoms are exchanged between different compounds or something like that so hopefully again if you're seeing a reaction where stuff exchanges you're to pick exchange reaction for that right so but again we're not going to worry about yeah all the fun chemical Parts where you start adding a whole bunch of things to it that's again beyond what we do okay how are we feeling about Exchange reactions pretty good all right we're kind of going to switch our scale then a little bit we're going to start talking about energy and the way that energy works can anybody Give me a definition for energy the amount of work to go okay right so we're going to say the capacity the capacity to do work right that's going to be our definition for energy and energy again is found in a whole bunch of different kinds of forms there's Light Energy electrical energy radiation energy heat energy a whole bunch of different forms of energy that we can look at we're going to look at them kind of as kinetic versus potential so can anybody tell me the difference between potential and kinetic energy potential is like the amount of energy to of it right stored energy and then what is kinetic energy the amount of energy you're releasing right energy of motion energy of motion so exactly right there is the the good old example you know rolling a ball up the hill right so you roll a ball up the hill you're basically imparting potential energy on it you push it down the hill and you're releasing that potential energy in form kinetic energy that's kind of again a common example um drawing a bow again that's potential energy you're putting energy into the string releasing the bow again now you're releasing it in form ktic energy inside of the human body again bonds are the basic way that we store energy so we have things again like glucagon glucagon again is basically just a whole bunch of glucoses put together and in those bonds again there's energy and within the glucose molecule itself all the little bonds that it has restores energy you break those bonds down you release it you convert a different ATP basically is how that works out and then when you then use the ATP that's when it becomes potential or sorry kinetic energy okay how are we feeling about again energy potential versus kinetic pretty straightforward stuff yeah let's move into enzymes and we'll probably do enzymes and then take a little break before we get into macr molecules just because again this chapter is pretty long chapter to get through we're moving at a pretty good Pace though can anybody tell me what an enzy is so what do we call things that make stuff go faster Catalyst Catalyst right so enzymes are a catalyst however they are specifically a biological catalyst so if we use just Catalyst often times that's like some kind of chemical or solution that you use in the lab but inside of living things we have our biological catalysts so when it comes to enzymes there's kind of like three big things about them there is you know what do they do so what do they do they oops spell they increase the speed of a reaction so how did they achieve that should do it as a sentence by lowering the energy of Activation so a little e with an A sign energy of activation and then again what's kind of the unique property again to our enzymes they are not consumed by the reaction so it takes a bunch of energy to make enzymes so if they were single use only it would not work very well because then we'd be spending way too much energy to actually make the enzy however again they basically increase the speed of a reaction they do that again by lowering the energy of activation without being consumed by the reaction so they're used just over and over and over and over again until they eventually do break down just through excessive use okay so um to kind of show that again graphically uh basically what we're saying here is that so if we draw a graph so this is basically like the reaction progress down here and you know our goal is to get to the other side this is energy of activation on that side there if we were to have a reaction that does not have an enzyme let's just say that it takes that much energy for the reaction to occur so that is no enzyme basically all an enzyme does is that it just tips the scale with an enzyme that's all that it does so again if we kind of looked at our a + b equals a that was 10 and that was 20 what an enzyme can do is maybe just make this number eight and by making that number eight now we start out with enough energy we don't need anything else to kind of make it happen the enzyme kind of facilitates that process and by doing that again the reaction now happen happens it's very spontaneous very very quick uh enzymes again are vital for the survival of most living organisms basically again without enzymes it would take about 600,000 times longer for sugars to be broken down inside of the body which again is problematic considering that sugars are one of the main energy sources that we use for short-term energy couldn't use those anymore right lots of things wouldn't be able to be broken down with these enzymes because stuff just doesn't break down without them okay in that case let's talk a little bit about enomatic reactions and the way that we draw out enatic equations basically so let's say again that I have an enzyme it's my little Pac-Man actually I'm going to draw him just ever so slightly different here R like that my Pacman likes Pizza because that makes it fit and basically what's going to happen is that if they bind together my Pacman is going to break down my pizza into something else go and now I have two slices of pizza right so I have my enzyme this is called a substrate because we could not keep the terminology the same so it can't just be a reactant now it has to be a substrate because you know gota got to change the terminology to make it easier right whenever they bind together this is what we call an enzyme substrate complex and then lastly again we still have our enzyme and then these are still called products everybody kind right with the basic outlines to an enatic equation and how that kind of works out okay some other terms we do need to worry about real fast where the substrate binds is what we call the active site and this guy back here is what we call an aleric side Alo ster site that's going to become a little bit more important when we start talking about Inhibitors and how we can basically turn off our enzymes okay now some other Concepts again that we have to worry about when it comes to um enzymes is again enzyme specificity basically what I'm saying here is that this enzyme likes Pizza which basically means that if I were to try to give it a donut it wouldn't work it would not be able to eat the donut it does that analogy make sense or is that just kind of kind of weird right so again ins are highly specific their ability to increase get that speed of reaction is immense but only on the one thing that they work on so let's do an actual example again of something um that we could see like inside of the human body I guess this is more on the side is where we see this mostly but so anybody know what this is h202 water not the Still Water now it's a little bit more spicy spicy than that it's more bit more fizzy but inside peroxide yeah yeah so again hydr peroxide we put it on wounds uh as a basic cleaner it's actually a really good cleaner because when breaks down it breaks down into water and oxygen which not toxic however the reason why that it fizzes on our body whenever we put it again on a wound or something is because we have the enzyme cataly right so in this case here again this is our substrate this is our enzyme if these two again were to bind together H2O2 bound to cataly that would make our enzyme substrate complex and then at the end again we still end up with catalase and then we get water and oxygen so again these guys at the end are products reactions like that again occur all the time inside of the body you can do the same thing if you look at something like starch starch again is broken down by the enzyme amula then becomes things like ales and stuff like that and then you use oror comes maltose and then you use males to bring it further down into glucose and other things so this type of stuff again happens all the time inside of the body and again we tend to have multiple enes to basically break down the different items until you get a final product that you actually want when we go through the digestive system later on we'll actually map out all the Ematic reactions from the different ma molecules to get them from the big version all the way down to what we actually use how we feel back kind of the B enzymes so far in these entic reactions can you just go over oh sorry so yeah the active site is where that a substrate binds and alisic site is anywhere else on the enzyme I'd like to put it on the back to kind of differentiate it but it is anywhere else anywhere else in yeah okay next we have to talk about things that can make enzymes work faster or slower so basically again when it comes to an enzyme its specific shape again is very unique to that you or to that specific enzyme and in general there are sort of three things that we look at that can alter how well my enzyme works so all enzymes again have an optimum pH temperature and just some degree concentration that they work at so if I draw a graph again we're just going to sort of put um what are we going to put at the bottom bottom would be temperature and then this is basically just a reaction speed so how fast my enzyme actually works the way the temperature tends to affect an enzyme is that if it's very cold it goes very slow and that's basically due to what we call the Collision Theory reactions only happen if stuff gets together so this the colder something is the slower atoms and molecules move and it's harder for things to get together however as we heat it up it gets faster and faster and faster until we reach a maximum and after that you tend to have a very significant drop in how fast your reaction goes but kind of right with how that works out and then after that it becomes nothing and basically what happens is that once we hit this peak and we go beyond the peak an enzyme becomes denatured does anybody know what it means if an enzyme is denatured it's changed right so denatured means a confirmational change a confirmational I know I can't write up here there we go a confirmational change [Music] resulting in the loss of function so basically my Pacman again likes pizza so he has to have the right shape on the active side to eat pizza apply enough Heat and now my Pac-Man has kind of a weird looking active site because it gets all distorted the pizza no longer fits and because of that it can't eat it en doesn't work anymore the same thing basically happens again if we set up a similar graph that with ph and again we have our reaction speed so if we're looking at this one this tends to be a little bit more of a bell curve so there is some kind of an immediate where that our reaction is the best and then really after that again we just kind of plateau sort of in a similar way so this is why that something like salivary amul does best in the mouth because the mouth is fairly neutral but then you get something like um pancreatic amulet again but the slightly better in a slightly alkaline environment because it's somewhat alkaline down do the swamp even though they kind of break down some of the similar things they just are a little bit different where they have their optimum pH how we kind of feeling about that consideration so a thumbs up or be a little shaky hand on this one we're good all right so again same thing here you've become denatured whenever you start going outside of your range okay then we have saturation it's kind of our last one to discuss there and saturation kind of goes like that so again we have our reaction speed and then we have our saturation down here or I guess we should say concentration and I guess I should mention there for this one often times what you could see on the exam would be like these types of graphs and then the question would be based on this graph what kind of enzy environment are we in what are we looking at is a temperature pH or concentration so basically what we're saying here again is that with concentration you get this nice Plateau basically what we're saying is that if I have 10 enzymes if I have 10 substrates I'm going to have 10 enzymes for the reaction but if I have 10 enzymes and I add 100 substrates I'm still only going to have 10 enzymes worth of reaction because I only have 10 enzymes I can't work faster than the amount of enzymes that I have does that make sense or is that a little weird is that a thumbs up for everybody so concentration doesn't Den it ever no concentration does not denat it it's just a bottle basically again so all that does is just allow the reaction to run for a longer time because you supplied enough substrates but it's not going to go any faster again A lot of times the analogy that we use for that is you know if you own an amusement park and you got one of the um like a roller coaster if you only have 10 seats in the roller coaster you're only going to get paid for 10 uh people at a time right even if there's 100 people waiting in line you're still only getting 10 people at a time in your that's kind of the way the concentration works it's just how long it takes for everybody to get mov oh enzyme activation we haven't gotten to that one yet we haven't gotten to enzyme activation yet is that the next one on H we got to do inhibition first and then we'll do activation and then we'll take a bridge then we only have a lot more stuff to cover but yeah that's yeah this chapter is what is this like something like four or five chapters and principles all condensed into one yeah all of chemistry yeah it's it's a lot it's a lot packed down into a single chapter but it's that's why it's kind of like a review chapter we have a lab today uh mostly book stuff we have if we have time yeah so all right let's talk about enzyme inhibition now so when it comes to enzyme inhibition this is basically just three basic ways for us to prevent an En from doing doing its job now there's a couple different ways that you can do that but first one is what we call competitive and with competitive inhibition this is where that we're going to say a inhibitor inhibitor competes or the active site so basically I have my enzyme I have my pizza that I want to eat and again if I do that I end up splitting my P in half there we go that's my goal now what can happen along the way though is let's say my little green guy here he's an inhibitor and he comes and sits down here so just going to put down little I for inhibitor right now my inhibitor is in the way of my substrate because of the pizza no longer fits perfectly like it's supposed to and my reaction no longer occurs so does not happen everybody kind of right with that concept there so again if the inhibitor gets there first no reaction if the substrate gets there first we get our reaction just kind of depends on again how many substrate versus Inhibitors that you have all right then we have non-competitive and a non-competitive this is basically where oh should be an inhibitor binds to an alisic site changing the shape of the active site so one of the basic concepts that we have when it comes to enzymes is that anytime you bind anything to an enzyme it changes its shape so doesn't matter where you B it as long as you B something to it it will change its shape so basically what happens again is that if I have my enzyme and it has that aleric site on it if my inhibitor floats down and binds on that alisic site it causes my enzyme to now look different and by doing that again my pizza does not fit so either way we're basically preventing the reaction from occurring it is just are you physically blocking the substrate from getting there or you finding somewhere else to change the shape of the the enzy so it no longer fits whatever it is you're trying to break down are we kind of feeling above those two see pretty good all right that case let's go ahead and talk about the last type of enome inovation that we have which is what we call feedback inovation and basically feedback inovation is um and in product of a reaction allosterically sterically inhibits the first enzyme of the reaction so an in product of a reaction Hally inhibits the first enzyme of a reaction basically what I'm saying here is that a lot of times again we don't just use one enzyme in order to get our in product so if we have product one that's going to become product two which becomes product three which becomes product four as an example right or item 1 2 3 4 it doesn't really matter we're just going down the line which means we have enzyme one enzyme 2 and en 3 that are basically making this sort of chain reaction of events so if I make product four in two great of amounts which is this is actually the way that we regulate most things inside of our body with our enzymes if I make too much of whatever four is well I'm just going to go ahead and I'm going to block this guy and by blocking the first one I shut down the first reaction and now my whole chain reaction is blocked eventually when I need more of whatever prod four is I just take it off the inside I use it and then the reaction restarts does that kind of make sense or do we need an actual example do an example all right you eat your breakfast in the morning how is that going to affect your blood sugars go up they're going to go up and what do we generally release in order for our blood sugars to go back down ins insulin right so for all intents and purposes insulin is product for because what happens we make too much insulin you die right your blood sugars are going to Plum it you're going to go into basically you're going to start passing out that kind of stuff right you're going to go into sort of that um EIC State we don't want that so basically insulin can sort of go back and they can block first enzyme in the reaction second breakfast rolls around sugars go back up we use up the insulin and need more until we have too much and it shuts down the process lunch rolls around this one's not permanent like get it looks like it's just temporary this one is temporary the other ones technically aren't permanent either for example again with your competitive inhibitor once you've made enough substrate so you have enough there's a chance to just knock it out and eventually the body would get rid of all of the enzymes that are alic inhibited and then replace them yeah um it's just hopefully you don't die before them like that's what like cyanide is cyanide is an alic inhibitor that basically shut down your electron transport chain which is an important part of the mitochondria actually makes the ATP so it's like that's why people die if they get C poring it's also why they had to start putting it on almonds because apparently it's pretty good to prevent almonds from you know going bad it's also why a lot of people apparently die from almonds back with so yeah too many minutes so wasn't wasn't great all right how are we feeling about feedback inhibition kind of make sense and again this is the way we do most things inside of the body because it just makes sense if you make too much of a product just shut down the reaction with it use it and then start the process again all right last thing to talk about when it comes to our enzymes is going to be enzyme activation all right and basically the way that this one works out is that our enzymes again they're very very good at what they do so it's problematic if they stay on all the time because then they would be doing their stuff to much so again we can shut it down using the feedback mechanism but there's other ways to do it as well and one way to do that again if we have let's say we have our enzyme it's in this inactive State and then we want to turn it on so that it can now do its reaction what we can do and depending on which enzyme this is this would be opposite some of them like to have phosphate attit to turn on some of them have to have phosphate removed for them to turn on basically what we can do is uh we can use what's called ayase and ayas basically adds a phosphate it's all they do and for some of them again if I add a phosphate boom I change the shape because I added something to my enzyme so it just hangs out in that inactive State then we use the kinase which is another type of enzyme phosphate on it boom en starts up does its reaction next thing I need to make sure that it doesn't do too much so I'm going to use a third kind of enzyme what we call a phosphatase and the phosphates then removes the phosphate from it we kind of feel about that does that make sense is a little weird so the kind starts it and stop or for this example yeah or vice versa if it was a different kind of enzyme that has It reversed basically so you can basically describe this again as the activation slash deactivation of enzymes by the addition uh by the addition or removal of phosphates put a phosphate on there take it off I'll either turn it on or turn it off again depending on the specific am of P sign that we're looking at but either way again all we're doing is just activating deactivating all right with that though I've been talking for about an hour and a half so let's go ahead let's take a like a 10-minute break and then when we come back we'll try to knock out all this other stuff again we we need to worry about for today again this is a a long chapter for us to Pepper pause this here only 14 more questions oh yeah PR it all right so we are back after our break let's get into a couple more uh quick items here so next thing for us to talk about our Redux reactions does anybody know what Redux reactions ref first to just oxidation yeah reduction oxidation all right and in order to remember which one is which again this basically refers to if you lose or gain an electron so you can do oil rig oil rig oxidation is loss reduction is gain so basically reduction is just when an atom gains an electron and then oxidation is when an atom loses an electron e minus so again for this one here it could be a thing where again I could ask you you know based on this definition is it reduction or is it oxidation or I could give you something like this again we could say um like that right or again probably more like sodium chloride and then that became sodium chlorine oops something like this here um so in in this example here what happened to sodium lost lost right it lost so sodium was oxidized meaning that chlorine was reduced in this example here right basically what you're looking at again if they turn positive they were oxidized if they turn Negative they were reduced in a chemical reaction and that's really all you need to worry about for the Redux reactions again this happens all the time inside of the body it's one of the main ways again that we drive the electron transport chain inside of the mitochondria by doing these Redux reactions over and over and over again um but that's a home of Spiel that we don't have to really worry about today okay we ready to talk acids and bases yeah let's do it let's do it right okay let's first Define an acid versus again a base and to just kind of make it uh make it quick here again an acid is basically um a substance that releases hydrogen ions when dissociated in a solution most of the time again our Solutions are going to be water but really all I'm saying here is that again if I add something to water and it releases hydrogen ions it's considered an acid one of the more common ones again for for that would be hydrochloric acid because if I were to add that to water it would break down into Hy ions and chlorine seems straightforward enough if you release hydrogen ions you're considered an acid versus again a base and this definition is going to be almost the same except we're going to release hydroxide so a substance that releases hydroxide ions when dissociated in a solution so again sodium hydroxide is a very common example for this one you have your sodium you have your hydroxide put it in water and it is going to split into sodium and hydroxide and because of that again it is considered a base things straightforward enough yes all right next thing to then worry about is the basic pH values that we have so again if I were to do a little scale I'm going to put a mark in the middle so anybody remember what the pH scale runs from 1 to 14 some will say zero sometimes it really doesn't matter but for again our level what's the metal seven right does anybody know where is the acidic side basic side yes so acidic would be this side alkaline on the other side and then what would we call it in the middle neutral neutral okay little trivia question question does anybody know what PH stands for a big word not too bad potential hydrogen yeah I know not very fancy honestly right potential hydrogen and that is because again the pH scale is a logarithmic scale of the concentration of hydrogen that we have in that specific solution so considering again that the potential hydrogen is the opposite of the potential hydroxide we can basically Break It Down based on those concentrations meaning that if I were to do this and this which one should be greater than the other H+ side right you would have to have more hydrogen than hydroxide to be in the acidic side of the scale what should it look like in the middle should be equal right so they're going to be somewhat equal and that means you're neutral and then what about on the alkaline side is this is that West yes West stand right whatever is being eaten is bigger a little crocodile mouth or whatever yeah I was trying to teach my kid that over summer and had to put teeth on all of themselves made it take a lot longer to to draw these out but anyways everybody is hopefully pretty okay with how that works out right okay let's make it real fun and add more math to it because again math is just the best way to do this luckily we're not going to try to use again log scales and inverse logs and all that because it's Anatomy it's not chemistry right instead we're just going to do easy math easy math all right so let's say that start at ph5 I add enough of a solution to it to make a ph9 my question to you is did my hydrogen ion concentration increase or decrease decreas it decreased right because I went from being acidic to alkaline so that means I have to have less hydrogen ions in there question number two how much how much did we decrease by four not four 40% not 40% so this is a logarithmic scale meaning that each unit what 10,000 10,000 right each unit is a factor of 10 so basically what we would have had to do is say 10times 10 * 10 * 10 making it 10,000 so scienic notation right it would be 10,000 times less concentrated in this case here how is everybody feeling about that all right okay let's do another one then let's do the other way let's go from ph11 and let's go all the way to ph4 okay question Still Remains can it's all connected question Still Remains here hydrogen ion concentration increase or decrease increase or increase increase right because we became more cic how much and before we start trying to do a bunch of math in our head let's do even easier math right multiplying by 10 is not difficult however can anybody tell me what the difference is between 11 and four so four or 11 minus 4 seven seven all right so put a one one two three four five six seven there we go as long as you can subtract between and 14 all you do is put down a one and then you know the number of zeros that you need to put down could we do it in scientific notation oh oh yeah you could do that too yeah 10 to the S yeah so however you want to do it yeah now just kind of the last question to make sure that everybody's like okay with this let's say that I were to flip these and make them hydroxide well do we think now for the red one you would increase how much it be the opposite instead ofing by one that's exactly right yeah okay make sure my audio was still there it restarted on me so but yeah right so again I hydrogen and hydroxide concentrations are just inverses of each other so if one decreases by 10,000 one increases by 10,000 so what would happen again on the blue one right what seven zeros 10 million right so everybody feeling kind of right with the math section on this cool that gets us to uh oh we still got to talk buffers I always forget buffers does anybody know what a buffer is doesn't it like ties the pH basically so buffers prevent large pH changes so a buffer is basically something that can pick up either hydrogens or hydroxides so if you were to add again an acid to it it starts with releasing all those hydrogens the buffers just pick it up and by doing that your pH doesn't to change a lot or again if it's a buffer for a base it picks of those hydroxides and now you're not getting a change in PH right so we use buffers all the time inside of the body espicially ones for CO2 just because CO2 acts as an acid inside of the blood so we want to make sure again that we basically convert it into stuff like bicarbonate and then we can move it up into the lungs and then right it back into CO2 so we can expel it if not our blood will become highly acidic very very quickly how we feeling about the idea of a buffer does that make sense do we need to like graphically show no everybody good on buffers no okay right in that case let's go ahead and move on to the next thing which is going to be macromolecules okay so this would be kind of like the last big thing that we got to talk about does anybody know what the four big macro molecules are one of them potassium oh you thinking way too small okay amino acid is still too small what do amino acids make proteins right so one type of Macro Molecule could be a protein and again their monomer form or what we call the amino acids right so they're made of amino acids what's another thing again A lot of times just think about your diet what type of stuff is other things that you could carbohydrates right so carbohydrates are sugars and their monom form are what we call the monosaccharides because we need a really fancy term to say single sugars what's something else lipids lipids right lipids are often times again fats but these are basically made of fatty acids and glycerol that's kind of the the main modern reform again that we see for our lipids all right does anybody know the last one though this one is not thought about again when we talk about our diet because we generally don't get it as a full version this one is again a little bit weird nucleic acid so nuic acid again like DNA and and RNA and like ATP those are kind of the big ones to we're talking about there and again these are made of like nucleotides that's kind of the the monom of form again that we have for those so those are the major macro molecules that we have we're sort of quickly going to run through all of these and just kind of discuss them in a little bit of detail again so that we can wrap things up for today all right so let's start out with carbohydrates I think because that's the one I have first on my list so carbs does anybody know what the function of carbohydrates are inside of the human body fuel right so carbohydrates is more often used for shortterm energy and basically what we're just saying here is that short-term energy just means that it's really what we like to use whenever our cells are actually doing something it just doesn't store well and that's why if you get too many carbs in your body it's converted into fat because fat only takes up about 50% of the space that carbs do so if you were to store everything as carbs you would have to be 50% bigger basically which is just not great for storage purposes right so St short-term storage again is a pretty common thing and then it's also used often as basically building blocks so a lot of things inside of the body a lot of like our cellular components are made of these hydrates they're just different kinds that are good for structural components so that's where we tend to use our carbs a lot terminy or again just s building blocks and again when it comes to different kinds we have our monosaccharides again monosaccharides are the uh single sugars that we have they're the ones that all have kind of the same empirical formula that's C6 h126 so here we're talking about things like glucose is a pretty common example of a monosaccharide fructose as a common example of monosaccharide and then galactose those are kind of the the three big uh ones that we have if you were to take two of these and put them together or some combination of them and put them together we make what's called a disaccharide or again a double sugar it has two in it and here again sucrose is a good example of that or like lactose is a good example of a disaccharide that we could see inside the human body if you take a whole bunch of them and put them together that's where we get the polysaccharides and again when it comes to the polysaccharide glycogen is probably the most common one that we use that's kind of the basic one again you see in animals uh starch is another one that's mostly in Plants but you know it's we like to eat it there's also things like cellulose cellulose is found mostly like in the cell walls of plant cells a little bit in fungal cells and then lastly we have kiten kiten yeah kiten is is um mostly in funy but we also see a lot of insects in their exoskeletons which is why they're crunchy and that's basically again where you know carbohydrates being a good building block Works in there it's very good for some of those structure components how are we feeling on carbohydrates amazing amazing right so again questions on here could be you know what is a carbohydrate you know that kind of St like what what are the purposes and then you know what are examples that stuff all right next up we then have the lipids and again when we talk about lipids we can break these down into a couple different types uh it's basically simple lipids complex lipids and then the sterols so we're talking about a simple lipid a simple lipid is basically just fatty acids and glycerol that's all this is so if I draw little glycerol molecule uh CCC and then we have the fatzy acid chains afterwards so we got glycerol and we have again kind of our fatty ass chains here and that's kind of the basis of how a simple liit is set now depending on how long those chains are again they're a little bit more difficult to break down or if there's kink in so under the simple lipid Branch we have three types of simple lipids so we have what we call saturated fats and basically saturated fats kind of the the three characteristics of these is that there are no double bonds so these guys are very straight basically what I drew right here is actually a saturated fat everything is nice and straight and even as it comes down to the fatty acid chains these tend to have animal origin and they tend to be solid at room temperature so can anybody think of a common example of a saturated okay right like lber L right butter that kind of stuff that's generally a saturated that the other side to this are then the unsaturated fats so an unsaturated fat unsaturated fats basically have one or more double bonds and kind of the way that this works out again if if there's one double bond that makes makes it a monounsaturated fat if there are two or more double bonds two or oops more double bonds that makes it a polyunsaturated fat just kind of depending again on the amount there are so the way that that would look like again is that if we have a little glycerol molecule these double bonds causes Kinks and when you have pinks in the chains that means more surface area more surface area means easier time for the enzymes to attach and break them down that's why we tend to like unsaturated fats more than saturated fats again these tend to have plant origin and be liquid at room temperature okay can anybody give me an example of a unsaturated like yeah vegetable oil canola oil that kind of stuff right basically just anything that you really cook with that's that's oil Bas those are kind of bur saturated PS all right uh I didn't really Leave myself a lot of room here can I move this up just a little bit we'll move that kind of up so I have little bit more room here to to actually write some stuff out what all right last one is going to be the trans fats trans fats now the way that we tend to define a trans fat is this is a an unsaturated fat that was made into a satate that all right so basically again we took an unsaturated fat fixed all those Bonds in there got the M nice and straight and now it's saturated these are by far the worst ones that we have right those are the ones are the worst for you so going to just put a little star right these are the worst type of fat that we have but we use them all the time in uh like fast food cookies that kind of stuff and does anybody know why we use it so much cheap okay it's cheap what else tastes very good tastes very good right it's delicious it's why we like it because it is tasty so but it's not great for you that's kind of that's kind of the problem there how are we feeling about the three types of simple lieds that we have awesome awesome all right good deal in that case let's talk about complex lipids and complex lipids have a similar setup except we're just going to add more stuff to them so we're going to make them more complex right so these are basically made of um glycerol they're going to have their fatty acid and then we're just going to say plus extra so they're going to have some kind of extra thing to them that provides an additional function normally these extras are either going to be like a phosphorus it's going to be nitrogen or it's going to be sulfur so depending on what type of complex lipid we're looking at you just going to add one or more of these different things to it and by doing that we're going to give it additional properties so one of the big things that we tend to see a lot of is like this guy he gets some legs so anybody know what that kind of looks like [Music] a okay that is no that's not where we're going but I could see it that's not quite it you have oh I don't even know what's the unit chain think about po versus nonpol okay yeah okay so we're getting there a little bit more right so this is a phospholipid a phospholipid right you have tons and tons of these in every single cell that you have right because they're the ones to make the cell membranes and basically right this is your glycerol with a lot of phosphate bound to it and then these again are the fatty acid chains to make up all that stuff so little bit more complex because we just added an extra thing to it and it basically applies now polar and non-polar properties which makes it both hydrophobic and hydrophilic we'll talk much more about how that works out when we start talking about phospholipids next class and we should go do like cell membranes and all that all right the last one again is then basically all the steroids all the steroids that we have and these have a slightly different setup in the way that they're made these are basically a four carbon ring so they tend to have a four carbon ring structure this does not mean that there is just four carbons in the ring it means that they have four rings bound together and then after that they tend to have at least one hydroxy group and then they have some kind of other functional okay so one of the more common types of steroids again that we see and that's used or these steril again is cholesterol so cholesterol again is a really common one that we use it's used in a lot of our cell membranes to basically determine how liquidy or how Mal that cell membrane is going to be and if we look at I can kind of go out here if we take a look real fast at what that looks like just because my ability to draw is not that great so come on internet see what images we get right so we got four rings hydroxy group and then other functional groups added to basic that is how these guys basically work out I guess this one kind of shows a little bit more that hydrocarbon side chain nucleus and that's the basis of how all of our STS set up back here full screen make sure I the recording in there we go all right how are we feeling about lipids simple enough oh I guess I should probably said you know I always I always forget this part does anybody know what the purpose of these simple lippits are long-term storage right so basically this is longterm energy storage ter energy storage right and again that's the whole thing about how fat just it stores an incredible amount of energy and then you just break it down or convert it into the other products all right in that case we can move into proteins and really when it comes to the functions of proteins there are so many different functions that proteins have then we're just going to say General cellular functions just to give it one nice very broad definition right so proteins are used for cellular functions right you need to make something but proteins probably do it doing it you need to move something break something down build something again proteins are doing all that fun stuff right and again their basic form their monomer form again are these amino acids so when it comes to our amino acids they basically have kind of they all have sort of a a similar structure they have what we call a carboxy group on this side caroal and this is the W caroal group here we go and then on the other side again they have the amine group or amino group here and then this R is basically just functional groups are we gonna have to be able to like identify a protein based on picture like that uh if you were to be given something that be La then it could be something again like what a what is this and be like that's an a mean as an example again you should also know stuff again like if I were to ask you which one of these are macro molecules then it might have like three of them and they might have a mon in there just like picking those sound all right but anyways this is again the basic function that we have or the basic structure that we have for each of our different proteins and again this functional group gives us our 20 different kinds of amino acids that we have depending on the functional group that's on there you get those different chemical properties the other big thing that we kind of need to worry about are the different levels that we can see our proteins at all right so let's go through the four levels for protein structure basically so number one is what we call the primary level again so these are the levels of protein structure and the primary level is basically just an amino acid chain that's the way that we tend to Define this one so I'm just going to write AA for amino acid and again this is an amino acid chain so to show that graphically we're going to do it in high detail it's a line imagine that that line is let's say 500 amino acids all stuck together all made of the little peptide bonds what we call them because we had to have a specific name for the ones that are for amino acids but you just have five little amino acids all smacked together in a nice line that would be a primary structure just a long chain of amino acids everybody somewhat visualize that yeah okay in the secondary level we're now going to take our chain and we're going to start folding it a little bit so secondary this is where that we're going to basically add what we call an alpha Helix and we're going to start adding beta Sheets if you have a protein again that is comprised of Alpha helixes and beta sheets again that would be a secondary level so the Helix again is pretty straightforward you just coil the chain the beta sheet is a little bit more weird to kind of display in a two dimensional shape but you basically take your chain and you kind of swish it up and down and it makes sort of a wall and that wall again becomes important when we start making this in threedimensional structure scribbles do we kind of see this in our head or is it a little bit weird how that looks squished FS basically you took again your 500 of these and then on some of them you just spun them rather being straight they're now spinning around each other and then the other ones again you just took them and just kind of like folded them down and up and down at the tertiary level this is just where we're going to fold everything hold everything so we're going to take our chain we're going to just kind of like fold it around a little bit and by doing that I have now made a three-dimensional structure so in this case here what could happen again is that let's just say that this is a small enzy and that small enzyme kind of where that Helix is that's active side where the beta sheets are that's the aleric side and by doing that again I've now kind of made a protein and I you can do that again for smaller proteins just kind of stop here however if you want to make a larger protein then you have to go to a coordin levelops quinary there we go and this is simply just two or more tertiary levels tertiary structures so I would have my little guy here and then I just add another one another one so by adding all these together oops they're all kind of stuck but by adding these together I've now made a larger protein yeah yeah they would all be I this very low budget drawing right so yeah um the way that it the way that it actually looks significantly more you know detailed you were to look at like a see there's one that's a little bit more detailed here right so chain loops and sheets Fold It fold a bunch of them together I know it's not as good as my drawing but you know it has color at least right so that's basically again where like this one kind of shows it too so again start out just with the chain make some Helix Seas here again and you just make it bigger and bigger so anyone know what this is the important thing that we have a ton of inside of the body wood okay close it's in the blood plasma nope and nope hemoglobin got the little iron binding sections to it right here so four basic units anyways yeah so that's a little bit I guess graph way of showing that okay how are we feeling oops that's not what that's all right how we feel about protein good yeah in that case we can finally get to the last type of Macro Molecule that we have to talk about for today which is our nucleic acid all right when it comes to nucleic acid again basically this is going to be DNA RNA and it's going to be ATP those are the big on that we're going to worry about here but again when we talk about DNA hold on nuclear tides it's hard to talk and write something different at the same time uh when we were talking about DNA and RNA again they're made of nucleotides that is the monomer form that we have and you should know the three basic things that are found in a nucleotide so nucleotides are made of a five carbon ring in this sense here now again that is an actual just one ring five carbons in it it is made of a phosphate and it is made of some kind of nitrogenous base so some sort of myogenous Base all right basically what we're saying is that this is going to look [Music] something kind of like this so that's our base up there going erace hyrogen hyrogen hyrogen hren run out of room here it's going to be tight we'll draw it kind of sideways Tex and for it but there we go um that's going to kind of be our our guy here yeah it's all one I can't so that's going to be the uh kind of the structure again of what we're looking at when we're looking at a nuclear tide so got five carbons again kind of in the ring I know one of them is a little bit off to the side there but still techically part of it and with that in mind we can kind of talk about DNA versus RNA so we have DNA and we have RNA does anybody know what these two terms actually stand for dle a riban I don't know something like that close so this one is ribo your CL nucleic acid and this one is deoxy ribonucleic acid basically saying that there is one less oxygen in the sugar because the sugar again is the ribo sugar that is what this five carbon ring is so if we're looking over here how that I put an O and then parenes an H down here that's because this is what it looks like in RNA that's what it looks like in DNA and that's basically the difference between the sugar in DNA and RNA what is DNA used for does anybody know gen genes right so this basically stores oops stores genetic information we'll just say genetic info to make it short soes anybody know what AR is used for though for mRNA right so we're just going to sort of give it a basic definition protein synthesis right so there's quite a bit of RNA that's involved in protein synthesis so we're just going to give it that basic definition to make it kind of like an easy one RNA is used in a whole bunch of different ways but that's kind of the major one all right does anybody remember the four bases that we have in DNA a g [Music] and C oh yeah right so adenine quinine thine cytool okay what about RNA the same except for um T and U that's right so we have Adine guine sosine I feel like writing them out again but they are the same and then we have uracil uracil is that one that's a little bit different when we talk that RNA with DNA versus RNA right that's the next thing we're going to do is space pairing basically again if we go DNA to DNA or DNA to RNA we need to be able to know how to do that conversion all right so going to write a random DNA sequence and then we're going to go ahead and we're going to convert it into another DNA sequence atg a a c c a d i TT G that's probably enough all right we're going to convert that again into another DNA sequence this down so okay guess I'm going to write the rules up here right a to t g to C those are the basic base plan rules for DNA to DNA so you said t C all right TTG okay then somebody else what do we think ggt G [Music] GTG a and then who wants to do the last one a a right how's everybody feeling about the way that that out beautiful easy enough okay in that case let's go ahead and let's do an RNA one and RNA again is where we have to kind of account for the uh for the U so remember that t always pairs back to a but now an A will PA to a u so a or yeah u a c u a c somebody else ggu a Aug and lastly a a a a right quickly I can't this is Aug the starting point then yes we're not going to worry about that for this class but yeah it's yeah Aug is meth that's the first always the first code on that actually initiates the how are we feeling about going from DNA to RNA though amazing so again this could be a question where it's either like here are the codons and then you have to write in the sequence or it could be a thing like here's your DNA sequence which one is correct in RNA and then you'll have four options and it's like pick out the right one seems okay all right another way again to always double check your work if you have a sequence again like this and you've done it both in DNA and RNA these two sequences should be almost the same except wherever there's a t you do not have a u other than that the sequence should be exactly the same if they're not you messed up somewhere basically okay how we fing on DNA RNA all that good stuff easy easy stuff all right last thing also going to be very straightforward is just ATP again ATP it is AD Dennison Tri phosphate and basically kind of like we drew out earlier you have your Dennis and core there are three phosphates on the side of it and again what did we say that ATP is inside the cell energy right so this is the energy currency of the cell energy currency of C right so you said that core and three Fates so again this is another one that it out here so basically this is your your adenine you got your side chain to and then you got your three phosphates that's all it is and again we break this Bond right here boom lots of energy screen all right kind of the last thing again we need to know what it is we need to know you energy curency of the cell the last big thing we really need to know is the equation in order to convert or basically make ATP and again the basic way that we do that is by taking ad denin D phosphate and you add one of those if you have energy as an input you can make it into ATP I don't make my text Big after the [Music] subtext oh did it get really small afterwards you should just have to click the icon like did that do it no no it should just be like this little x with like the two at the bottom I think either that'll just highlight the section and then I'll yeah if not we can look at it in just a second anyways yeah ADP plus inorganic phosphate apply some energy to it and you make ATP and of course if you were to go the other way then energy would now be a release right so you would release energy if you were to go the other way you break down your ATP into ADP again phosphate you release energ right that should be it for what I have to talk about for chapter 2 how we fing any question at this point it was a lot of content again if you have questions you know make sure to stick around so that we can talk about that and touch the eyeball touch the eyeball that's right we can do that to and then go the book [Music]