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Indus Valley Civilization Overview

Oct 19, 2025,

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Overview

This lecture provides a comprehensive summary of Chapter 1 from Class 12th History—"Bricks, Beads, and Bones"—focusing on the Indus Valley (Harappan) Civilization, its urban features, sources, society, craft production, decline, and key archaeological personalities.

Introduction to Indus Valley Civilization (IVC)

  • The Indus Valley Civilization (IVC) is also called the Harappan Civilization, named after the first excavated site, Harappa (1921).
  • IVC existed from 3300 to 1300 BCE and is categorized as a Bronze Age civilization.
  • It developed alongside Egypt, Mesopotamia, and Chinese civilizations but was the most urbanized of its time.
  • The civilization was mainly spread over present-day Pakistan and northwest India, along the Indus River and its tributaries.

Chronology and Major Sites

  • IVC is divided into Early (3300–2600 BCE), Mature (2600–1900 BCE), and Late (1900–1300 BCE) phases.
  • Major sites: Harappa, Mohenjo Daro, Dholavira, Rakhigarhi, Banawali, Balakot, Lothal.

Sources and Archaeological Evidence

  • Knowledge comes from archaeological finds like seals, beads, pottery, tools, jewelry, bricks, and structures.
  • Seals made of steatite (a soft stone) with animal motifs and script are distinctive artifacts.

Urban Planning and Architecture

  • Harappan cities had grid-patterned streets, advanced drainage, standardized baked bricks (ratio 2:4:1), and separate citadel and lower town.
  • The citadel housed special public buildings like the Great Bath (earliest public water tank) and Great Granary (warehouse).
  • Houses had courtyards, private wells, bathrooms, and staircases, showing concern for privacy.

Economy and Subsistence

  • Main subsistence: agriculture (wheat, barley, lentils, chickpeas, sesame; rice rare), domesticated animals (cattle, buffalo, goats, sheep, pigs), and fish.
  • Use of ploughs (oxen-drawn), wells, canals, and reservoirs for irrigation.
  • Craft production included bead making, pottery, shell work, weights from stones, and metal work.

Trade and Contact

  • Harappans procured materials by settling near sources, sending expeditions, and trading with Mesopotamia, Oman (Magan), and Bahrain (Dilmun).
  • Evidence of trade: Harappan seals, distinctive jars, weights, and references in Mesopotamian texts to "Meluha" (likely IVC).

Society & Social Differences

  • Social distinctions tracked through burial goods (pottery, jewelry) and quality of grave construction.
  • Artifacts divided into utilitarian (everyday) and luxury (rare/non-local, complicated) items.

Craft Production & Centers

  • Major craft centers: Chanhudaro (main), Nageshwar & Balakot (shell objects).
  • Beads were made from materials like carnelian, jasper, steatite, and metals like copper, bronze, gold.

Script, Seals, and Communication

  • Harappan script is undeciphered, with 375–400 signs, generally written right-to-left, often with animal motifs for illiterate users.
  • Seals functioned in long-distance trade and as marks of identity.

Decline of the Civilization

  • By 1800 BCE, most mature Harappan sites were abandoned.
  • Possible reasons: climate change, deforestation, resource depletion, floods, earthquakes, shifting rivers, Aryan migration/invasion.
  • Post-1900 BCE, urban features disappeared, marking a shift to rural life ("Late Harappan culture").

Key Archaeologists & Discoveries

  • Alexander Cunningham: First Director General Archaeological Survey of India (ASI), misdated Harappan finds.
  • John Marshall: Announced IVC as a Bronze Age Civilization in 1924, professionalized archaeology in India.
  • S.N. Roy: Noted Marshall made India 3000 years older with his discoveries.
  • E. Mortimer Wheeler: Recognized importance of stratigraphy (layer analysis) in excavations.

Religion & Beliefs

  • Terracotta mother goddess figures, stone statues (Priest King), fire altars, ritual scenes on seals, unicorn motifs, nature symbols, and Proto Shiva/Pashupati indicate religious beliefs.
  • Conical stone objects (possibly lingas) suggest early Shiva worship.

Key Terms & Definitions

  • Citadel — Elevated, fortified area in Harappan cities for public buildings.
  • Steatite — Soft stone used for seals.
  • Stratigraphy — Study of soil layers in archaeology to understand chronology.
  • Utilitarian Objects — Everyday use items made of common materials.
  • Luxury Objects — Rare, valuable, or non-local items requiring complex production.

Action Items / Next Steps

  • Create tables matching materials to their sources and craft centers (e.g., Copper—Khetri, Gold—South India).
  • Review NCERT textbook Chapter 1 for detailed reading.
  • Study maps of IVC sites and trade routes for reference.
  • Prepare for short-answer questions on archaeology methods and key site features.

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