AQA GCSE Psychology: Memory, Perception, and Development

Jul 15, 2024

AQA GCSE Psychology: Memory, Perception, and Development

Lecturer: Dr. Roblox

Overview

  • Covers all content needed for AQA GCSE Psychology Paper 1.
  • Includes case studies and key terms.
  • Additional resources available on the website.

Paper 1: Cognition and Behavior

Topic 1: Memory

Types of Long-Term Memory

  • Episodic Memory
    • Autobiographical memory, recalling specific events, experiences, situations.
    • Example: Holidays.
    • Located in the right prefrontal cortex.
  • Semantic Memory
    • General knowledge and understanding of the world.
    • Example: Knowing the sky is blue, meaning of words.
    • Located in the left prefrontal cortex.
  • Procedural Memory
    • Recalling how to perform motor skills.
    • Example: Riding a bike, typing on a keyboard.
    • Associated with the motor area.

Encoding, Storage, and Retrieval

  • Encoding: Transform sensory input for storage.
    • Involves sensory systems and neural code transformation.
  • Storage: Different types of memories stored in specific brain regions.
    • Episodic in hippocampus, semantic in neocortex, emotional in amygdala.
  • Retrieval: Access stored memories, can be triggered by cues or reminders.
    • Recognition, cued recall, free recall.
    • Encoding methods: Visual, acoustic, semantic.

Structures of Memory

  • Multi-Store Model of Memory
    • Sensory Register: Immediate, automatic recording of sensory info.
      • Components: Visual (Iconic), Auditory (Echoic), Tactile (Haptic).
    • Short-Term Memory (STM): Temporary storage, limited capacity (7±2 items), short duration (20-30 sec).
      • Located in prefrontal cortex.
    • Long-Term Memory (LTM): Unlimited capacity, indefinite storage.
      • Located in hippocampus, neocortex.
    • Serial Position Effect: Tendency to recall items at beginning (Primacy Effect) and end (Recency Effect) of list.

Case Study: Murdoch's Serial Position Curve (1962)

  • Aim: Explore effect of item position on recall.
  • Procedure: Participants recalled words from list of varying lengths.
  • Results: U-shaped pattern; better recall for beginning and end items.
  • Conclusion: Supports Primacy and Recency effects.
  • Strengths: Controlled lab conditions, established cause and effect.
  • Limitations: Artificial task, limited to recalling word lists.

Reconstructive Memory

  • Concept: Memory is a reconstruction influenced by past experiences, beliefs.
    • Effort after meaning: Making sense of new information to fit existing knowledge.
    • Role of schema in memory construction: Influences attention, interpretation, recall.

Case Study: Bartlett's War of the Ghosts (1932)

  • Aim: Explore influence of cultural schema on memory.
  • Procedure: Recall Native American legend.
  • Results: Stories became distorted; altered to fit participants’ cultural schema.
  • Conclusion: Memory is a constructive process, influenced by existing knowledge.

Factors Affecting Memory Accuracy

  • Interference: New info interferes with recalling old info (proactive, retroactive).
  • Context: Physical/emotional context during encoding aids retrieval.
  • False Memories: Recalling events that did not happen or inaccurately remembering them.

Topic 2: Perception

Sensation vs. Perception

  • Sensation: Receiving and detecting sensory input.
  • Perception: Organizing and interpreting sensory info.
    • Example: Seeing a flower vs. recognizing its features.

Visual Cues and Constancies

  • Monocular Depth Cues: Work with one eye.
    • Height in plane, relative size, occlusion, linear perspective.
  • Binocular Depth Cues: Require coordination of both eyes.
    • Retinal disparity, convergence.

Gibson's Direct Theory of Perception

  • Key Ideas: Direct perception from environmental information, motion parallax.
  • Affordances: Opportunities for action perceived directly.

Visual Illusions

  • Ambiguity: Ambiguous visual information can create illusions.
  • Misinterpreted Depth Cues: Misleading depth info distorts perception.
  • Fiction: Brain fills in gaps in visual info.
  • Size Constancy: Perception of object size remains constant despite changes in distance.

Examples of Visual Illusions

  • Ponzo Illusion: Converging lines make equal lines appear different in length.
  • Mueller-Lyer Illusion: Arrowhead lines of equal length appear different.
  • Rubin’s Vase: Ambiguous figure-ground perception.
  • Ames Room: Distorted room creates size illusion.
  • Kanizsa Triangle: Perception of a non-existent triangle.
  • Necker Cube: Reversible 3D cube perception.

Gregory's Constructivist Theory of Perception

  • Perception as Inference: Uses visual clues, past experience.
  • Supported by cultural research: Hudson’s study on image perception in different cultures.

Factors Affecting Perception

  • Culture, Motivation, Motion, Expectation: Different factors modify perceptual set.

Topic 3: Development

Early Brain Development

  • Brain Regions and Functions:
    • Brain Stem: Basic functions like breathing, heart rate.
    • Thalamus: Sensory info processing.
    • Cerebellum: Coordination and balance.
    • Cortex: Higher-level functions like memory, language, decision making.
  • Nature vs. Nurture: Contributions of genetics and environment to development.
  • Influence of prenatal factors: Smoking, alcohol, infections (e.g., rubella).

Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development

  • Stages:
    • Sensorimotor (0-2 yrs): Sensory/motor interaction.
    • Pre-operational (2-7 yrs): Symbolic thinking, egocentric.
    • Concrete Operational (7-11 yrs): Logical thinking, conservation.
    • Formal Operational (11+ yrs): Abstract thinking, hypothesis testing.
  • Assimilation and Accommodation: Incorporating new info into schema, modifying schema for new info.

Case Study: McGarrigle & Donaldson's Naughty Teddy (1974)

  • Aim: Investigate children’s understanding of conservation.
  • Procedure: Rows of counters modified by “naughty teddy”.
  • Results: More correct answers when change was accidental.
  • Conclusion: Children as young as 4 can conserve under certain conditions.

Case Study: Hughes’ Policeman Doll Study (1975)

  • Aim: Investigate reduction of egocentrism.
  • Procedure: Hide doll from second policeman’s perspective.
  • Results: Children successfully considered policeman’s viewpoint by age 4.
  • Conclusion: Children can assume different perspectives earlier than Piaget suggested.

Dweck's Mindset Theory

  • Fixed vs. Growth Mindset: Fixed abilities vs. abilities can develop.
  • Role of Praise: Effort-based praise encourages growth mindset.

Topic 4: Research Methods

Hypotheses

  • Null Hypothesis: Assumes no effect or difference.
  • Alternative Hypothesis: Assumes a significant effect or difference.

Types of Variable

  • Independent Variable (IV): Manipulated by researcher.
  • Dependent Variable (DV): Measured outcome.
  • Extraneous Variables: Other factors impacting the study.

Sampling Methods

  • Random Sampling: Equal chance selection.
  • Opportunity Sampling: Based on availability.
  • Systematic Sampling: Regular interval selection.
  • Stratified Sampling: Subgroup representation.

Designing Research

  • Quantitative Methods: Experimental, lab experiments, questionnaires.
  • Qualitative Methods: Interviews, case studies, observation.
  • Correlation: Measures relationship between variables.
  • Research Procedures: Standardization, randomization, counterbalancing.

Ethical Considerations

  • Informed Consent, Confidentiality, Protection from Harm, Deception, Debriefing: Guidelines from the British Psychological Society.

Data Handling

  • Quantitative vs Qualitative Data: Numerical vs. descriptive data.
  • Primary vs Secondary Data: Original vs. previously collected data.

Normal Distribution

  • Characteristics: Symmetry, bell-shaped curve, peak at mean.

Good luck with your exams! Don't forget to use additional resources and practice questions on the website!