hello lollies in this year the brilliant doctor Roblox is going to be taking you through the whole of AQA GCSE psychology paper one now in this she's going to be explaining all the content that you need to know looking at all the case studies and the keywords that you need to be familiar with if you're watching this just before your exam so you get you can put it on two times and then pause it and make notes whenever you need to if there's something specific that you're looking for you can leave some chapters or if they're a bit too close together or a bit too confusing if you jump down to the description you'll see everything is time stamps and clearly laid out for you and then over my website there are those multiple choice questions how to do this lots and lots of extra stuff to support you in Eurovision good luck guys don't forget Dr Edwards and I are here with you every single step of the way [Music] thank you [Music] paper one cognition and behavior topic one memory episodic memory semantic memory and procedural memory are the three primary types of memory these types of memory are used to make up long-term memory one episodic memory episodic memory is a type of long-term memory that involves the ability to recall specific events experiences and situations from our past for example holidays is often described as autobiographical memory and includes details about what happened where it occurred and when it happened it is unique to the individual regardless of whether it is the same event it involves conscious recall episodic is associated with the right prefrontal cortex number two semantic memory semantic memory refers to our general knowledge and understanding of the world it involves the ability to recall facts Concepts and ideas that are not tied to a specific event or experience examples of semantic memory include knowing that the sky is blue understanding the meaning of words and knowing historical events it also involves conscious recall semantic memory is associated with the left prefrontal cortex of the brain number three procedural memory procedural memory involves our ability to learn and remember how to perform various motor skills and actions this type of memory is often referred to as muscle memory and is essential for tasks such as riding a bike typing on a keyboard or playing a musical instrument procedural memory is associated with the motor area which controls fine motor skills it happens without conscious recall once it has become encoded into the long term memory memories are encoded and stored through a complex process that involves various regions of the brain including the hippocampus neocortex and amygdala here are the three steps involved in the encoding and storage of memories step one encoding the process of transforming sensory input into a form that can be stored in the brain is known as encoding this process involves the initial registration of information in the sensory systems such as visual auditory or olfactory systems this information is then processed and transformed into a neural code that can be stored in the brain step two storage memories are stored in different regions of the brain depending on the type of memory for example episodic memories are stored in the hippocampus while semantic memories are stored in the neocortex the amygdala is involved in the storage of emotional memories step 3 retrieval the process of accessing stored memories is known as retrieval this involves the reactivation of the neural code that was initially encoded during encoding retrieval can be triggered by cues or reminders that are associated with the memory overall the encoding and storage of memories involve a complex interplay between various brain regions and processes different types of memories are stored in different regions of the brain they can be retrieved in a number of different ways this can include recognition for example when students are given multiple choice questions they are given Clues to enable the retrieval process cued recall can also help for example when you smell a smell which was there at the time of encoding or free recall when a person just recalls without the clues or cues new information can be encoded in a number of ways be done via visual encoding thinking through images acoustic encoding for example remembering how a song or a piece of music goes and finally semantic encoding which is via meaning the word semantic refers to meaning this is the understanding of words and placing them in a sentence let's move on to structures of memory the multi-store model of memory is a theoretical framework that describes the process by which information is encoded stored and retrieved from memory it was proposed by Atkinson and schriffin in 1968 and suggests that memory consists of three separate stores the sensory register short-term memory and long-term memory the sensory register the sensory register is the first stage of memory processing and involves the immediate and automatic recording of sensory information from the environment the sensory register has separate components for different types of sensory input including visual or iconic memory auditory echoic memory and tactile haptic memory information in the sensory register has a very short duration a few hundred milliseconds and is not stored unless it is attended to short-term memory short-term memory is the second stage of memory processing and involves the temporary storage of information that is currently being attended to or actively processed short-term memory has a limited capacity about 7 plus or minus two items and a short duration about 20 to 30 seconds unless the information is rehearsed or transferred to long-term memory short-term memory is believed to be located in the prefrontal cortex of the brain finally long-term memory long-term memory is the final stage of memory processing and involves the storage of information that has been rehearsed or processed in short-term memory long-term memory has an unlimited capacity and can store information for an indefinite period of time long-term memory is believed to be located in various regions of the brain including the hippocampus and the neocortex the multi-story model of memory proposes that information passes through each of these stores in a linear fashion with sensor information being briefly held in the sensory register before being transferred to the short-term memory information that is rehearsed or processed in the short-term memory is then transferred to the long-term memory for more permanent storage this model has been influential in the study of memory and provides a basic framework for understanding how information is processed and stored in memory however it has also been criticized for oversimplifying the complex processes involved in memory and for failing to account for the role of attention and other factors in memory encoding and retrieval each store in the multi-store model of memory has specific features that describe how information is processed and stored these features include coding capacity and duration here's a description of each store's features the sensory register coding information in the sensory register is represented in the same form as it was received from the environment for example visual information is coded in the form of visual images auditory information in the form of sound waves and tactile information in the form of touch Sensations capacity the capacity of the sensory registers very large and it can hold a vast amount of sensory information simultaneously the duration of the sensory memory is very short ranging from a few hundred milliseconds to a few seconds short-term memory coding information in short-term memory is encoded primarily in the form of sound or speech-based representations known as acoustic coding however other forms of coding such as Visual and semantic coding can also occur capacity the capacity of the short-term memory is limited and it can only hold about seven plus or minus two items of information at a time duration the duration of short-term memory is relatively short lasting only 20 to 30 seconds unless information is being rehearsed long-term memory Cody information in long-term memory is encoded in various forms including semantic Visual and acoustic coding this allows us to retrieve information based on its meaning appearance or sound capacity the capacity of long-term memory is believed to be unlimited as it can store an indefinite amount of information over a lifetime duration the duration of long-term memory is also believed to be unlimited as some memories can last a lifetime while Others May fade over time serial position refers to the position of an item in a sequence or list in the context of memory the serial position effect refers to the tendency for people to remember items at the beginning and end of a sequence better than items in the middle this effect is demonstrated through two distinct phenomena known as the Primacy effect and the Regency effect first let's look at the Primacy effect the Primacy effect refers to the superior recall of items that appear at the beginning of a list this is because items that are presented early in the list have more time to be rehearsed and transferred to long-term memory before subsequent items are presented as a result these items are more likely to be remembered than items later on in the list think Primacy like primary and Primary School comes first so these words are recalled first from the list let's have a look at the recency effect the recency effect refers to the superior recall of items that appear at the end of a list this is because items that are presented later in the list are still present in the short-term memory making them easier to recall as a result these items are more likely to be remembered than items in the middle of the list these are said to be the most recent in the list hence recency effect case study one Murdoch's serial position curve study was a classic experiment conducted by Jay Murdoch in 1962 that investigated the effect of serial position on memory recall aim the study aimed to explore how the position of an item in a list affects the likelihood of its being recalled procedure the experiment consisted of presenting participants with a list of words and asking them to recall as many of the words as they could immediately after the list was presented Murdoch varied the length of the list and the time interval between the presentation of the list and the recall test the results the results of the study showed a typical serial position curve with a U-shaped pattern of recoil performance like the one you can see below specifically Murdoch found that the participants were more likely to remember words presented at the beginning and the end of the list so the Primacy and recency effects in action then the words presented in the middle of the list the conclusion the Primacy effect was explained by the idea that the first few items in the list were more likely to be transferred into long-term memory due to their extended rehearsal time the recency effect was explained by the fact that the last few items were still fresh in the participants short-term memory when they were asked to recall them overall Murdoch study provided evidence for the serial position effect and demonstrated how it can influence memory recall the study has been widely cited in the field of cognitive psychology and has helped shape our understanding of the mechanisms underlying human memory strength of This research is that it was conducted in laboratory conditions therefore cause and effect is established this means that the independent variable is the position of the word in a list and the dependent variable is the probability that the word is recalled another strength of the research is that it is supported by research with amnesiacs research of amnesiacs has shown that people who can't store new long-term memories do not show a Primacy effect but they do show a recency effect this shows that Primacy effect is linked to long-term memory a limitation is that is an artificial task as the participants had to learn a list of words which isn't meaningful to them therefore the findings are only telling us about the ability to recall lists of words not information that is Meaningful to us let's move on to looking at memory as an active process the theory of reconstructive memory is a concept developed by Sir Frederick Bartlett in the 1930s proposes that memory is not an exact recording of past events but rather a construction of what we believe happened based on our previous experiences beliefs and knowledge the theory suggests that when we recall a past event we are not simply playing back a recording but rather reconstructing the memory based on our current perspective knowledge and beliefs one of the key Concepts in the theory of reconstructive memory is the idea of effort after meaning according to Bartlett people have a natural tendency to try and make sense of new information and integrate it with their existing knowledge and beliefs this process involves actively processing information and actively trying to find meaning in it effort after meaning can influence how we remember events for example if we're presented with information that is inconsistent with our existing knowledge or beliefs we may try to make it fit by altering our memory of the event similarly if we're asked to recall an event that we only have partial knowledge of we may try to fill in the gaps with information that we believe to be true even if it is not accurate key aspect of the theory of reconstructive memory is the role of schema in memory Construction schema is a mental framework or organizational structure that helps us to process and remember information schemas can influence what we pay attention to how we interpret new information and how we remember events for example if we have a schema for a typical dinner party we may remember details that fit with this schema such as the food drinks and conversation more easily than details that do not fit such as an unexpected guest or an unusual activity overall the theory of reconstructive memory suggests that memory is not a passive process of retrieving stored information but an active process of construction that is influenced by our current perspective beliefs and knowledge the concept of effort after meaning the active role that people play in constructing memories and emphasizes the importance of understanding the influence of schema and other factors on memory Construction case study 2. Bartlett's War of the ghosts study is a classic experiment conducted by Sir Frederick bartler in 1932 that investigated the role of schema in memory recall the AIM the study aimed to explore how cultural schemas can influence the way that people remember a story the procedure in the experiment Bartlett presented participants with the Native American Legend called The War of the ghosts the story was unfamiliar to their participants and contained many unfamiliar elements Bartlett then asked the participants to recall the story to the next individual after various time intervals Bartlett deliveries selected a story that was from a different culture to ensure that there was no familiarity bias in the results results the results of the study showed that as time went on participants Recollections of the story became increasingly distorted specifically participants tended to change the story in a way that made it more consistent with their own cultural schemas for example participants often replaced unfamiliar words and phrases with more familiar ones and omitted or altered details that did not fit with their existing knowledge and beliefs conclusions Bartlett's study demonstrated the importance of schema in memory recall and provided evidence for the idea that memory is a constructive process that is influenced by our pre-existing knowledge beliefs and cultural background the study has been widely cited in the fields of our cognitive psychology and has helped shape our understanding of the role of schema in memory Construction several factors can affect the accuracy of memory including interference context and false memories let's have a look at these in more detail starting with interference new information interferes with the ability to recall previously learned information there are two types of interference proactive interference and retroactive interference proactive interference occurs when previously learned information interferes with the ability to recall new information while retroactive interference occurs where new information interferes with the ability to recall previously learned information another factor is context contextual cues can also affect the accuracy of memory the context in which a memory is encoded can influence how the memory is later retrieved for example a memory may be easier to recall if the individual is in the same physical or emotional state they were in when the memory was encoded finally false memories false memories occur when an individual recalls something that did not actually happen or remembers an event differently from how it occurred false memories can be caused by several factors including leading suggestions suggestive language and the incorporation of misinformation false memories can also be influenced by the individual's expectations beliefs and cultural backgrounds topic 2 perception sensation and perception sensation and perception are too related but distinct processes in the way we interpret and understand the world around us sensation refers to the process of receiving and detecting sensory input from the environment through our sensory organs such as Eyes Ears Nose tongue and skin sensation involves the basic process of registering stimuli through sensory receptors and transmitting them to the brain perception on the other hand refers to the process of organizing and interpreting sensory information into meaningful patterns and representations perception involves higher level cognitive processes such as attention memory and interpretation that enables us to understand and make sense of sensory information to give an example when you see a flower the sensation involves the light waves entering your eyes and activating the sensory receptors in your retina this information is then transmitted to the brain via the optic nerve perception on the other hand involves the brain processing the sensory information to recognize and interpret the flower such as identifying its color shape and texture in summary sensation refers to the detection of sensory stimuli from the environment feeling while perception involves a higher level cognitive processes that organize and interpret sensory information thinking it is an area of discussion in psychology as to whether there is a difference between the sensation and perception some psychologists don't think it's as clear-cut as a difference between the two visual cues and constances monocular depth cues are visual cues that help us perceive depth and distance using only one eye these cues include height in plane this queue involves the placement of objects in a scene in relation to the horizon or ground play objects that are higher in the visual field are perceived as farther away while those that are low in the visual field are perceived as close up relative size this queue involves using the size of familiar objects as a reference to determine their distance objects that appear smaller in the visual field are perceived as farther away while those that appear larger are perceived as closer occlusion this queue involves using overlapping objects to determine their relative distance when one object partially covers another the covered object is perceived as farther away than the object that is covering it and finally linear perspective this queue involves the way parallel lines appear to converge in the distance when looking down a long straight road for example the size of the road appeared to converge towards a point in the distance this queue can give us an idea of the distance and depth of a scene by not getting Adept keys are visual keys that rely on the coordination of both eyes and enable us to perceive depth and distance in three-dimensional space there are two main binocular depth cues the first one is retinal disparity retinal disparity refers to the slight difference in the image received by each eye due to their slightly different perspectives the brain combines these two slightly different images to create a single three-dimensional image the greater the disparity between the images the closer the object is perceived to be this is why we perceive objects as being more distant when we close one eye the second is Convergence convergence refers to the inward movement of the eyes when focusing on nearby objects the brain uses the degree of eye convergence to estimate the distance of an object when an object is close the eyes have to converge more when an object is far away the eyes converge less they allow us to accurately judge distances sizes and positions of objects in our environment and play an important role in our everyday visual experiences Gibson's direct theory of perception Gibson's direct theory of perception is a theory that emphasizes the importance of direct perception which refers to the idea that the human visual system can directly perceive and interpret the sensory information from the environment without requiring any mental interference or processing according to Gibson the real world provides sufficient information for our perception and this information is available for direct pickup by the sensory systems Gibson believes that the environment is structured in such a way that it presents fallencies which are opportunities for Action that are directly perceivable in the environment affordances are perceived in a direct and non-inferential Manner and the information needed to perceive them is available in the environment itself in Gibson's view motion parallax is an import cue that plays a role in direct perception motion parallax provides information about the relative distance and motion of objects in the environment and this information is available for direct pickup by the visual system Gibson argued that the information in the environment is invariant meaning that the information Remains the Same regardless of the observer's position or orientation as a result motion parallax provides direct and reliable information about the layout of the environment without requiring any mental interference or processing a good example of motion parallax is when we are moving fast say on a train and the objects closer to us appear to move faster than those further away the things in the distance are much slower in comparison visual illusions visualizations are perceptual phenomena in which our perception of an object or scene does not match its physical reality there are various explanations for visual Illusions including ambiguity some visual Illusions occur because of the ambiguity of the visual information presented for example the neck ER Cube illusion occurs because the lines of the Cuba on ambiguous and can be perceived in two different ways leading to the perception of the cube flipping back and forth between two different orientations misinterpreted depth cues many visual Illusions occur because of misinterpreted depth cues depth cues are visual cues that provide information about the relative distance of objects in the environment when these cues are ambiguous or misleading our perception of the environment can be distorted for example The Amos room illusion occurs because the room is designed to create misleading depth cues making the two people in the room appear to be vastly different in size fiction some visual Illusions occur because our brains are filling in gaps in the visual information presented for example the kinesa triangle illusion occurs because our brains fill in the gaps between the incomplete circles to perceive the illusion of a triangle finally size constancy size constancy is the phenomenon in which our perception of an object's size remains constant even when its distance from us changes however this can lead to visual Illusions when our perception of an object's size conflicts with its physical reality for example the Moon Illusion occurs because our perception of the moon size is influenced by its perceived distance from us even though its physical size remains constant overall visual Illusions occur because of complex interactions between our sensory organs the neural processing of information and our past experiences and expectations the ponzo illusion this illusion involves two horizontal lines of equal length placed on a background of converging diagonal lines the Top Line appears longer than the bottom line due to the influence of the converging lines even though they are the same length you can see this here with the two blue lines the Muller liar illusion this illusion involves two lines of the same length each with arrowheads pointing in opposite directions the line with the outward pointing arrows appears longer than the line with the inward pointing arrows even though they are the same length ribbons vas illusion this illusion involves an image that can be perceived as either a virus or two faces in profile depending on which interpretation the viewer focuses on the image alternates between appearing as a vars or faces the Ames room illusion the solution involves a specifically designed room that creates an optical illusion of depth making one person in the room appear much larger or smaller than the other person the kinesic triangle illusion this solution involves the perception of a triangle that is not actually present three incomplete circles are arranged to suggest the presence of a triangle even though no lines are connecting the circles the Necco Cube illusion this illusion involves a wireframe key that can be perceived in two different orientations with the front and back faces appearing to switch places in perception Gregory's constructivist theory of perception perception is the process by which our brain interprets and makes sense of the sensory information that we receive from our environment this process is not simply a matter of taking in raw sensory data and processing it in a straightforward manner perception involves making inferences from visual cues and past experience to construct a model of reality this Theory contrasts with Gibson's idea that perception is innate visual cues are the information that our brain receives from the environment through our senses such as light color shape and motion however visual Clues alone do not provide enough information to fully perceive and understand the world around us for example when we see a tree we do not just see a collection of colors and shapes we also infer that the tree has a certain size texture and distance from us our brain uses past experience and knowledge to make these inferences and fill in the gaps in the sensory information for example we learn from experience that objects that are farther away appear smaller so that when we see a person in the distance we infer that they are smaller than they would appear if they were closer to us similarly we use our knowledge of object properties and relationships to make inferences about the objects we see such as the fact that a chair is meant for sitting and a car is meant for transportation these inferences are not always accurate and can be influenced by a variety of factors including context expectations and biases however they are an important part of perception because they allow us to construct a coherent and meaningful model of the world around us even when the sensory information we receive is incomplete or ambiguous this theory is supported by research in different cultures one strength of this theory is that it's supported by studies that show people perceive things differently depending on their culture for example Hudson found that children who weren't used to looking at picture books interpreted 2D images differently to children who were used to regularly looking at picture books a weakness however is that despite Gregory's Theory being supported by understanding of visual Illusions they are still unusual examples of perception by looking at visual Illusions they are designed to fool us so they don't really offer a full explanation of how visual Illusions work in the real world it also doesn't offer a full explanation of how visual Illusions begin in the first place there is a lot of research that suggests babies have an innate ability to recognize faces and depth perception therefore this cannot be built up over time factors affecting perception perceptual set refers to the tendency for our perception to be influenced by our expectations past experiences and context in other words our perception is not simply a reflection of the objective features of the stimuli in our environment but is also shaped by our beliefs attitudes and cultural background one factor that can affect perceptual sex is culture different cultures have different perceptual experiences and expectations which can lead to differences in the way that people perceive and interpret the same stimuli for example people from Western cultures tend to focus more on individual objects and their attributes while people from Eastern cultures tend to focus more on the context and relationships between objects motivation can also influence perceptual set when we are motivated to perceive something in a particular way such as why we are looking for a specific object in a cluttered environment we may be more likely to attend to and interpret stimuli in a way that is consistent with our goal motion can also affect our perception when objects are in motion we may perceive them differently than when they are static for example the motion of a spinning object can create an illusion of shape or movement that is not actually present in the object itself expectation is another important factor that can affect our perception when we have a strong expectation about what we are going to see we may be more likely to perceive stimuli in a way that is consistent with our expectation even if that perception is not entirely accurate for example if you are expecting to see a particular person in a crowd we may be more likely to perceive a face that resembles that person even if it is not actually there case study three the Gilchrist and nesberg study of motivation examined how motivation can influence perceptual sex Hillcrest and nesberg study investigated the effect of hunger on how we perceive situations the AIM Gilchrist and nesberg in 1952 aim to find out what effect food deprivation would have on the perception of food-related pictures do the pictures of food appear brighter when participants are hungry the method the experimental group consisted of 26 undergraduate volunteers who volunteered to go without food for 20 hours there was also a control group who were not deprived of food for 20 hours they just ate their normal diet they were randomly assigned to the conditions participants were shown four slides of a meal including a T-bone steak spaghetti hamburgers and chicken participants were told it was an exercise in matching pictures after each Slide the image was turned off and then turned on again this time it was dimmer they were then asked to adjust the lighting knob so the picture looked the same as before the researchers were interested in whether those which were the food deprived adjusted the pictures more than those that were not food deprived the results they found that those that were food deprived did adjust the pictures more than those that had eaten normally for 20 hours Gilchrist and nesberg could conclude that hunger is a motivating factor that affects perception being deprived of basic needs produces a magnified sensitivity towards images of food making them seem brighter and more appealing the strengths and weaknesses of This research are as follows one strength is there is support from similar studies Samford in 1936 deprived participants of food for very lengths of time and found the longer they had gone without food the more likely they would select ambiguous images and interpret them as food one of the limitations is that depriving people of food for 20 hours is unethical even though they hadn't opted in they may not have realized how their body May react to the lack of food or may have wanted to eat but felt pressured to continue with the study finally another limitation is that the task is not like one that is representative of everyday life this decreases the validity of the study case study 4 the Bruner and Min 10 study of perceptual set investigated how expectations and past experiences can influence perceptual sex the aim to investigate how perceptual sets can affect our ability to recognize letters and numbers the method the method of the study involved presenting participants with a series of visual stimuli that were designed to be ambiguous meaning they could be interpreted as either a letter or a number this was a letter B that was slightly split so it could be interpreted as the number 13. the participants were divided into two groups group one was shown four letters then the test followed by four numbers then the test then a mix of letters and numbers followed by the test group 2 had this method counterbalance so that they started with numbers then letters then the mixture the results the results show that participants who were primed with letters were quicker and more accurate at identifying the ambiguous stimuli as letters while those who are primed with numbers were quicker and more accurate as identifying the stimuli as numbers for the mixture of letters and numbers the test results were mixed as some drawer B and sum 13. this study showed that what the participants interpreted the stimulus to be was based on their expectations the strengths and weaknesses of This research are as follows the strengths the study was carefully designed and controlled with a clear aim and methodology that allowed the researchers to investigate the specific research question the study used a within subject's design meaning that each participant experienced both conditions which help to control for individual differences counterbalancing the study provided clear and consistent results that supported the hypothesis and highlighted the role of perceptual sets in shaping our perception and interpretation of visual information weaknesses the study was conducted on a relatively small sample size which may limit s ability of the results the study used artificial stimuli ambiguous figures letters and numbers that may not reflect how we perceive real-world objects and situations lacking ecological validity the participants volunteered so may not be fully representative of the population the stone did not take into account individual differences in cognitive abilities and perceptual biases which may have influenced the results to pick three development early brain development brain development begins in the womb and continues throughout childhood and Adolescence the brain initially starts as a simple neural tube which eventually develops into distinct brain regions with specialized functions the brain stem is the oldest and most primitive part of the brain controls essential functions like breathing heart rate and digestion these functions are automatic and do not require conscious effort the thalamus is responsible for processing sensory information from the environment including touch sound and vision it acts as a relay station sending information to the appropriate regions of the brain for further processing this cerebellum is located at the base of the brain and is responsible for coordinating movement and balance it receives input from the sensory systems and the motor cortex and it uses this information to adjust and refine movement the cortex is the outermost layer of the brain and is responsible for the higher level cognitive functions such as attention memory language and decision making is divided into several regions each specialized for specific functions during brain development different regions of the brain mature at different rates the brain stem Thalamus and cerebellum develop early in gestation while the cortex continues to develop throughout childhood and Adolescence as the brain develops there is a progression from simple reflexive behaviors to more complex and voluntary actions first developed basic motor skills like grasping and crawling and as they grow and their cortex matures they gain more refined motor skills and cognitive abilities the development of the cortex allows for more complex behaviors and the ability to think abstractly and plan for the future the roles of Nature and nurture refer to the contributions of genetic and environmental factors to human development and behavior nature refers to the genetic or innate factors that influence development while nurture refers to the environmental factors that contribute to development nature plays an important role in human development as our genetic makeup determines our physical traits and influences our cognitive abilities and personality traits for example jeans determine our eye color height and susceptibility to certain diseases additionally research has shown that some personality traits such as introversion extroversion and neuroticism have a strong genetic basis however while genetics provide the blueprint for development nurture also plays a critical role in shaping human behavior and development environmental factors such as upbringing culture education and experiences can influence cognitive emotional and Social Development for example Studies have shown that early childhood experiences such as parental warmth and support can have a significant impact on children's cognitive and emotional development moreover environmental factors can also interact with genetic factors to influence development for example Studies have shown that genetic factors May interact with environmental factors such as stress or trauma to increase the risk of mental health problems in terms of development factors such as smoking infections for example rubella and alcohol can influence the development of a baby in the womb these can then have an impact on the child's development as it grows up foreign Jean Piaget's theory of cognitive development is one of the most influential theories of child development according to Piaget children progress through a series of four cognitive stages each marked by distinct changes in the way they think reason and understand the world the first stage is the sensory motor stage which is rebirth to about two years old this stage is marked by the development of sensory and motor abilities children learn that the world through their senses and actions Grant you developing object permanence understanding that objects continue to exist even when they are out of sight stage two is the pre-operational stage which is from two to seven years during this stage children develop symbolic thinking and language skills they are egocentric meaning they have difficulty understanding that others have different perspectives than their own the third stage is the concrete operational stage which is from about 7 to 11 years this stage is marked by the development of logical thinking and the ability to understand concrete and tangible Concepts children can conserve which means they can understand that the amount of a substance Remains the Same despite changes in its appearance the final stage is the formal operational stage from 11 years and above during this stage individuals developed abstract thinking and the ability to reason logically about hypothetical situations they can think systematically and draw conclusions based on abstract Concepts assimilation and accommodation are two key Concepts in Piaget's theory assimilation occurs when a child incorporates new information into their existing schema or mental framework for example a child who has a schema for a dog may assimilate a new dog into that schema accommodation on the other hand occurs when a child modifies their existing schema to fit new information for example a child May accommodate their schema for dog after encountering a cat and creating a new schema for cat Piaget's theory emphasizes the active role of children in constructing their own understanding of the world around them children are seen as active Learners who construct their own knowledge through their experiences and interactions with their environment in terms of Education piaga's Theory suggests that Educators should take into account the cognitive abilities of children at each stage of development for example Educators can support children's learning by creating developmentally appropriate activities that align with their cognitive abilities in the sensory motor stage Educators can provide opportunities for children to explore and interact with their environment through play in the pre-operational stage Educators can use concrete examples and visual aids to help children understand abstract Concepts concrete operational stage Educators can provide opportunities for children to engage in Hands-On learning and problem solving in the formal operational stage Educators can challenge students to think critically and apply abstract Concepts to real-world situations Piaget also said that children progress through each stage through the process of Aging therefore you can't progress to the next stage until you are biologically ready to progress to the next stage therefore teaching a child an advanced skill before they are ready would be a waste of time for the child and educator children can also progress through these at slightly different paces and Educators should be aware of this case study 5. mcgarrigal and Donaldson's naughty Teddy study aim to investigate children's understanding of conservation to investigate the original work carried out by Piaget in the original study by Piaget children were shown two identical glasses filled with the same amount of water the experimental poured water from one of the glasses into a taller thinner glass in front of the child making it appear as if the amount of water had increased the child was then asked if the two glasses contain the same amount of water or if one had more prior to age seven children tended to say that the taller glass contained more water indicating a lack of conservation understanding after age seven children were more likely to understand that the amount of water had not changed and the two glasses contain the same amount Hughes conducted the following experiment to compare conservation skills in children their aim was to see if there were a change in the child's reaction if there was no deliberate change in the row of counters I.E if the change was accidental the method there were 80 children a study from Edinburgh in Scotland 41 Nursery age with a mean age of four years and 10 months and 40 were primary age with a mean age of 5 years and 10 months they were introduced to a naughty Teddy who may escape from his box and try to mess up the toys in the children's game the teddy jumped out of his box and pushed the counters about this made the same amount of counters in one row look longer than the other row and that road at shorter the adult would ask before and after the Teddy's Interruption are there more here or more hair or are they both the same pointing at both of the rows the results about 41 of the children gave the correct answer when the row was changed deliberately but in the version where the teddy disrupted the rose 68 of the children gave the correct answer primary children were able to conserve more effectively than the younger Nursery aged children conclusions this study shows that the traditional method of testing conservation underestimated what children can do in this study many of the nursery aged children were able to conserve a younger age than Piaget originally said there was however a difference between the primary and Nursery age children a weakness of mcgarrigo and Donaldson's study was that they just used primary age children from the same school this may affect the results as they may have had a specific type of teaching or a better language development than other children another weakness may be that the children were distracted by the telly that they didn't notice the change of the Rose so they have no need to change in their answers therefore they aren't actually conserving the items they're just looking at the teddy the strength of This research is that acknowledges Piaget's original research but then shows there is a difference in his findings and he may have confused younger children in the way that he questioned them case study six the development of conservation Hughes policemen doll study this was designed to build on Piaget's three Mountain study where children were shown three mountains one with a Hut one with snow and one with a red cross on it the doll was placed in random locations near the mountain and children were able to move around to see the different viewpoints of the mountain the children were then asked to study some pictures and choose which was taken from the doll's perspective the results showed that children Age 4 chose pictures that showed their perspective rather than the dolls but children aged seven or above were able to choose the correct pit the aim hughes's policemen doll study aimed to investigate children's reduction of egocentricity the 30 children aged three and a half to five years also from schools in Edinburgh in this study children were shown a model of a street scene with a toy policeman and a doll the experimenter asked the child to take on the perspective of the policeman and hide the doll from the Viewpoint of a second policeman this was conducted twice to check the child's understanding of the positions prior to the actual experiment starting the results children under the age of three tended to hide the doll from their own Viewpoint indicating a lack of understanding of another's perspective however by age four children were more likely 90 of them to successfully take on the perspective of the second policeman and hide the doll out of their View the conclusion those children between three and a half to five years old can see things from another person's perspective if they are used to the situation and if the task is clear for them to follow a strength of This research is that the task used made sense more to the children than Piaget's original version this was more similar to the type of games and problems most children would encounter in everyday life than the three mountains task it is difficult to pick out the view of the mountains the doll would see but much easier to think about where you would hide from someone else Hughes also took the time to run through the questions and set up the task with the children first so they understood what they were being asked a weakness is that the researcher may have unconsciously hinted about the correct answer it could be the person conducting the study with the children may have given subtle clues about where the doll could have been hidden another strength is that it challenges Piaget's research this again shows The credibility of Piaget's original work which shows that there are Emissions on the way he set up the research and the way he worded some of his questions effects of learning on development dwx mindset theory of learning proposes that individuals have two different mindsets that influence their Learning and Development first is the fixed mindset people with a fixed mindset believe that their abilities and intelligence are fixed and cannot be changed they may be more likely to avoid challenges and give up easily when faced with obstacles because they believe that their abilities are predetermined and cannot be improved the second is growth mindset people with a growth mindset believe that their abilities and intelligence can be developed through effort and learning they are more likely to embrace challenges persist through obstacles and see failures as opportunities for growth according to dwac individuals mindsets can be influenced by the praise and feedback they receive from others praising intelligence and talent can reinforce a fixed mindset whilst praising effort and hard work can reinforce the growth mindset self-efficacy beliefs also play a role in learning according to dwac's Theory self-efficacy refers to an individual's belief in their own ability to succeed at a particular task or in a particular domain people with a growth mindset are more likely to have higher self-efficacy beliefs because they believe their abilities can be developed through effort and learning on the other hand people with a fixed mindset may have lower self-efficacy beliefs because they believe that their abilities are predetermined and cannot be changed in education Drex Theory suggests that teachers can promote a growth mindset by emphasizing the importance of effort and learning rather than just praising intelligence or Talent teachers can also help students develop higher self-efficacy beliefs by providing them with opportunities to succeed and by helping them set achievable goals Research into praise and self-efficacy suggests that they can help us to improve our motivation to work praise can be used as a reward for hard work for example if a child performs one in a play and is given a prize to be effective it needs to be honest sincere and deserved the praise must feel genuine and not like it's given for everything self-efficacy is related to expectations past expectations can help improve RFC but negative experience can lower our self-efficacy this leads us on to only select things to do that we believe we are good at and avoid things that we think we're less good at students with a high self-efficacy are more likely to make more of an effort in tasks than those with low self-efficacy learning styles refer to an individual's preferred way of learning and processing information there are several different models of learning styles but one common distinction is between verbalizers and visualizers verbalizers prefer to learn through spoken or written words and they often enjoy lectures discussions and reading they may have strong verbal skills and enjoy working with language visualizers on the other hand prefer to learn through Visual or spatial information such as diagrams pictures and videos they may be more Adept at tasks that involve mental imagery such as spatial reasoning or visual memory there are also kinesthetic Learners these are people who learn through a Hands-On approach taking part and doing something is more effective than reading about it however it is important to note that the concept of learning styles has been criticized by some researchers including Daniel William a cognitive psychologist and expert in learning and education Williams learning theory emphasizes that while individuals may have preferences for certain types of learning such preferences do not necessarily translate into improved learning outcomes William argues that instead of focusing on learning styles Educators should prioritize evidence-based practices that have been shown to improve learning outcomes such as providing clear explanations feedback and opportunities for practice and retrieval additionally he emphasizes the importance of building students background knowledge as it is a key factor in improving learning outcomes across a range of subjects and domains some researchers suggest there could be up to 27 types of learners therefore it would not be possible to Focus Education materials to the needs of all different types of learners topic 4 research methods formulation of a testable hypothesis in statistics the null hypothesis and alternative hypothesis are two opposing hypotheses used to test the validity of a claim or hypothesis about a population the null hypothesis is the hypothesis that there is no significant difference between two groups or variables or that there is no significant effect of an intervention or treatment it is considered the default hypothesis until evidence is provided to reject it in other words the null hypothesis is a statement of no effect or no difference the alternative hypothesis is the hypothesis there is a significant difference between two groups or variables or that there is an effect of an Interventional treatment it is the opposite of the null hypothesis the alternative hypothesis is the hypothesis that the researcher wants to support and it represents the possibility of finding a significant difference or effect for example let's say a researcher wants to test the claim that a new drug is more effective than an existing drug for treating a specific condition the null hypothesis in this case would be that there is no significant difference between the two drugs while the alternative hypothesis would be that the new drug is more effective than the existing drug the researcher would then collect data and use statistical tests to determine whether there is enough evidence to reject the null hypothesis in favor of the alternative hypothesis if the null hypothesis cannot be rejected then it is assumed to be true until further evidence suggests otherwise if the null hypothesis is rejected then it is concluded that there is sufficient evidence to support the alternative hypothesis types of variable in experimental research there are three types of variables independent variables dependent variables and extraneous variables let's look at the first one the independent variable the independent variable is the variable that is manipulated or Changed by the researcher in order to observe its effect on the dependent variable it is also known as the cause variable because it's believed to cause a change in the dependent variable for example if a researcher is interested in the effect of caffeine on memory the independent variable will be the amount of caffeine given to the participants the dependent variable the dependent variable is the variable that is measured or observed in response to changes in the independent variable it is also known as the effect variable because it is believed to be affected by the independent variable in the example previously the dependent variable would be Memory performance extraneous variables extraneous variables are variables that may affect the dependent variable but are not of interest to the researcher they are also known as confounding variables because they can confound or distort the results of the study extraneous variables can include things like age gender personality traits environmental factors and other variables that may influence the outcomes of the study researchers try to control for extraneous variables by using random assignment and other research methods to ensure that the groups being compared are as similar as possible it is important to identify and control for extraneous variables to accurately measure the effect of the independent variable on the dependent variable this helps to ensure that the results of the study are valid and reliable sampling methods in research a Target population refers to the group of individuals or entities that a researcher is interested in studying a sample is a smaller subset of the target population that is selected for the purpose of the study sampling is the process of selecting a sample from the target population using specific sampling methods there are four main sampling methods commonly used in research this one is random sampling random sampling involves selecting individuals from the target population at random without any bias or preference this can be done using a random number generator a table of random numbers or other random selection methods what the strengths of random sampling it's considered the most unbiased and representative sampling method as each member of the target population has an equal chance of being selected it minimizes the potential for bias and ensures that the sample is representative of the target population and it is easy to understand and implement what are the weaknesses of random sampling it may not always be feasible especially when the target population is large and spread out it could be time consuming and expensive to contact every member of the target population it may result in a small sample size which can reduce the generalizability of the findings opportunity sampling opportunity sampling involves selecting individuals from the target population based on their availability and willingness to participate in the study this is often used in convenient sampling where participants are recruited from a specific location or setting such as a school or workplace the strengths it is easy to implement and requires minimal resources it can be useful in certain situations where it is difficult to contact members of the target population and it may be more practical when time and resources are limited the weaknesses it may not be representative of the target population as it only includes individuals who are easily accessible or interested in the study it may result in biased samples which can affect the generalizability of the findings it can be difficult to control extraneous variables that may affect the results systematic sampling thematic sampling involves selecting individuals from the target population at regular intervals such as every 10th person on a list what are the strengths it is easy to understand and implement can be useful when the target population is large and spread out it could be more efficient than random sampling as it doesn't require contacting every member of Target population weaknesses it can introduce an alternative bias if there is a pattern in the list such as alphabetical order it may not be representative of the target population if the list is not complete or up to date it may result in a small sample size which can reduce the generalizability of the findings stratified sampling stratified sampling involves dividing the target population to subgroups or strata based on specific characteristics such as age gender or geographic location a sample is then selected from each stratum to ensure that the sample is representative of the target population stratified sampling can be useful when there are known differences in the Target population that may affect the results of the study the strengths of stratified sampling it ensures that each subgroup in the Target population is represented in the sample it can reduce the potential for bias and increase the representativeness of the sample and it allows for comparisons between subgroups the weaknesses it may be time consuming and require more resources than other sampling methods it requires accurate information about the target population to divide it into the appropriate strata it may not be practical when the target population is small or homogeneous to select a sample using these methods researchers need to identify the target population and determine the appropriate sampling method based on the research question and the characteristics of the population here are some of the principles of sampling that are commonly applied to Scientific data the first one is representativeness a sample is considered representative if it accurately reflects the characteristics of the larger population from which it was drawn to achieve representativeness the sample selection process should be unbiased and based on sound statistical principles the second is sample size the size of the sample should be large enough to provide accurate estimates of the population parameters of Interest the required sample size depends on the variability of the population the level of precision desired and the confidence level chosen randomness random sampling involves selecting individuals or units from the population using a random procedure such as drawing names out of a hat or using a random number generator this helps to minimize bias and increase the likelihood that the sample is representative of the population the sampling frame the sampling frame is the list of all individuals or units in the population from which the sample is drawn it should be comprehensive and up-to-date to ensure that all the members of the population have an equal chance of being selected the sampling method the sampling method used should be appropriate for the research question and the characteristics of the population there are several sampling methods including random sampling strategory sampling cluster sampling and convenience sampling and lastly data quality sampling can affect the quality of the data collected it is important to use appropriate sampling techniques to reduce the risk of bias and ensure the accuracy and reliability of the results by applying these principles researchers can obtain reliable and valid results that can be generalized to the population of Interest designing research quantitative and qualitative methods are two broad categories of research methods that are commonly used in scientific research quantitative methods are one experimental method the experimental method is a research method that involves the manipulation of an independent variable to observe its effect on a dependent variable experimental designs include independent groups repeated measures and matched pairs designs independent groups design is suitable for testing the effectiveness of different interventions or treatments the strengths are that it eliminates the problem of order effects results in fewer demand characteristics and its weaknesses are that individual differences can be confounding and it may require a larger sample size repeated measures design is suitable for testing the effects of one treatment on the same group of participants over time strengths include that it eliminates individual differences as a confounding variable and that it requires fewer participants the weaknesses are the risk of order effects and it may lead to demanding characteristics the last one match pair's design is suitable for testing the effects of one treatment on different but similar groups of participants strengths include that it reduces the individual differences as a confounding variable and it reduces participant variability weaknesses are that is difficult to find suitable matches and it requires more time and effort quantitative methods 2 laboratory experiments laboratory experiments are conducted in a contract environment such as a laboratory they are suitable for studying cause and effect relationships in a highly controlled environment the strengths include that they have high control over variables they allow for the manipulation of independent variables and they have high internal validity the weaknesses are that they may lack ecological validity and they may be subject to demand characteristics quantitative methods three field and natural experiments field and natural experiments are conducted in real-world settings they are suitable for studying real-world phenomena and the effects of interventions in natural settings strengths is that they have high ecological validity they have a greater generalizability to real world situations and they're less prone to demand characteristics weaknesses are that they're difficult to control for extraneous variables there's less control over the independent variable quantitative methods for questionnaires questionnaires are a method of collecting data through self-reported responses to a set of questions they are suitable for collecting large amounts of data from a large sample size in a relatively short period the strengths are that they're easy to administer and analyze data can be collected quickly from many participants and they can be completed quickly the weaknesses are that it's limited to the quality of the questions the risk of low response rates is quite high and it may be subject to social desirability bias qualitative methods are one interviews interviews are a method of connecting data through one-on-one conversations between the researcher and the participant suitable for gaining in-depth insights into individual experiences beliefs and attitudes the strength of questionnaires are that it allows for in-depth exploration of participant experiences and perspectives and can gather rich and detailed data the weaknesses of questionnaires or interviews are they are time consuming and resource intensive and they may be subject to interviewer bias qualitative methods too studies case studies involve in-depth investigation of an individual group or organization they're suitable for studying unique or rare cases and gaining in-depth insights into complex phenomena the strength of case studies are that they allow for in-depth understanding of a particular case and they can provide insights into complex phenomena the weaknesses of case studies are that they may not be generalizable to other cases and they could be subject to research or bias qualitative methods three observation studies observations stock observation of behavior in a natural setting it's suitable for studying behavior and interactions in naturistic settings and gaining insights into social and cultural contexts strengths are that it allows for the collection of naturalistic data and can provide insights into real world Behavior weaknesses are that it may lack control over extraneous variables it could be subject to Observer Bias and also inter-observer reliability may be an issue so that's between different observers they can differ with their observations and opinions correlation correlation is a statistical technique used to measure the strength and direction of the relationship between two variables here are some strengths and weaknesses of correlations the strengths correlations can reveal important relationships between variables that might be missed by other types of analysis correlations can be used to test hypotheses and make predictions about future events correlations are relatively simple and easy to interpret making them accessible to researchers with little statistical training the weaknesses of correlations correlations only measure the strength and direction of the relationship between two variables they cannot establish causality correlations can be affected by outliers which can distort the results correlations can be influenced by sampling bias which can affect the generalizability of the results correlations can be influenced by Third variables which can produce spurious relationships and correlations can be influenced by the nature of the variables being studied such as their scale or measurement or their underlying distribution therefore while correlations can provide valuable insights into the relationships between variables they should be using conjunction with other methods and approaches to draw more robust conclusions research procedures standardized procedures and instructions for participants are essential to ensure that experimental conditions are the same for all participants this means that every participant is treated in the same way which reduces the impact of extraneous variables on the results randomization involves assigning participants to a different conditions or groups randomly to ensure that each group is similar in terms of important variables that may influence the outcome of the study this helps to control for individual differences that could affect the outcome of the experiment and it helps to ensure that the groups are comparable in terms of variables that are not directly related to the research question allocation to conditions refers to the process of assigning participants to different experimental conditions or groups counterbalancing involves presenting stimuli or conditions in different orders to participants to control for order effects extraneous variables are variables that are not of interest to the research question but could potentially impact the outcome of the study these variables could include individual differences among participants environmental factors or situational variables controlling for extraneous variables involves using various techniques to minimize their effects on the outcome of the study one way to control for extraneous variables is to use random assignment to ensure that participants are distributed evenly across experimental conditions or groups planning and conducting research when planning research it is important to consider the reliability and validity of the sampling methods experimental designs and quantitative and qualitative methods used this will ensure the study is well designed and the results are trustworthy sampling methods should be carefully selected to ensure that the sample is representative of the population being studied a random sampling method is considered the Gold's damage for selecting a representative sample but other methods such as stratified sampling or convenience sampling may also be appropriate depending on question and available resources experimental designs should be chosen based on the research question the type of data being collected and the Practical considerations of the study different types of experimental designs such as independent groups repeated measures or matched pairs have different strengths and weaknesses and the choice of design will depend on the specific research context and question quantitative and qualitative methods should be selected based on the type of data being collected and the research question quantitative methods are best suited for collecting numerical data whereas qualitative methods are better suited for collecting descriptive or narrative data the choice of method will depend on the research question and the type of data being collected in terms of reliability researchers should take steps to ensure that their research methods are consistent and produce stable results over time this may involve using standardized procedures training research Assistance or using reliable and valid measurement tools in terms of validity researchers should take steps to ensure that their research methods are accurately measuring what they are intending to measure this may involve using a valid measurement tool conducting a pilot study to test the validity of the research methods or using multiple methods of data collection to triangulate results ethical considerations ethical issues are an important consideration in psychological research to ensure that participants are not harmed physically or psychologically and their rights are protected the British psychological Society has outlined guidelines to ensure that ethical principles are followed in psychological research some of the ethical issues that are commonly encountered in psychological research and ways of dealing with these are as follows the first one is informed consent participants must be informed about the purpose procedures and potential risks and benefits of the research before they agree to participate they must be given the option to withdraw at any time without penalty participants can be given a consent form that outlines the purpose and procedures of the study along with any potential risks and benefits the form should clearly state that the participation is voluntary and that participants have the right to withdraw at any time the second is confidentiality and anonymity participants personal information must be kept confidential and they should not be identified in any publication or presentation of the research without their explicit consent participants can be assigned a code number and their personal information can be kept separate from the data researchers can also Secure Storage and data encryption to protect participants personal information protection from harm participants must not be exposed to any physical or psychological harm during the research any potential risks must be minimized and participants must be debriefed after the study to ensure that they are not distressed researchers can minimize potential risks by using non-invasive methods and monitoring participants for any signs of distress if any harm is observed the study should be stopped immediately deception deception should be avoided in psychological research if it is necessary participants must be debriefed as soon as possible to prevent any harm researchers can minimize deception by using alternative methods or being transparent about the purpose of the study debriefing participants must be debriefed after the study by the researchers they should explain the purpose of the research the procedures and any deception that may have been used participants must also be given the opportunity to ask questions and provide feedback data handling quantitative data refers to numerical data that can be measured and analyzed statistically this type of data is usually obtained through structured research methods such as experiments surveys and questionnaires and can be used to establish cause and effect relationships between variables qualitative data on the other hand refers to non-numerical data that is obtained through observation interviews and other unstructured research methods this type of data is usually descriptive in nature and is used to gain a deeper understanding of human behavior and the underlying reasons for it primary data refers to data that is collected by the researcher directly from the source this type of data is original and has not been collected or analyzed by anyone else before examples of primary data collection methods include surveys experiments interviews observations and focus groups secondary data on the other hand refers to data that is already being connected and analyzed by someone else for a different purpose this type of data can be obtained from sources such as books academic journals government reports and online databases secondary data can be useful for research purposes because it can save time and resources and can be used to validate or supplement primary data a normal distribution also known as a gaussian distribution or bell curve is a symmetrical probability distribution that is commonly observed in natural phenomena the following are the characteristics of a normal distribution one symmetry a normal distribution is symmetric around the mean meaning that the probability obtaining a value above the mean is the same as the probability of obtaining a value below the mean two it has a bell-shaped curve a normal distribution is represented by a bell-shaped curve with the highest point of the mean and the Tails extending out to positive and negative infinity and three the peak the peak of the curve is at the mean you should be able to apply math skills such as calculating the range mean median and mode and draw and interpret data in table and graph ouch this is why in some videos I explained scratches [Music]