Understanding Qualitative Research Approaches

Qualitative Revision 1. Write a short outline of what qualitative research is and why it is different from quantitative research. Qualitative and quantitative research look to answer research questions, but they do this in different ways. Quantitative research focuses on testing a hypothesis to understand the relationship between 2 variables (Ellis 2022) or answers questions with a numerical element. Qualitative looks to answer the “why” rather than the “what” or “how”. It uses words rather than numbers to see the world through the eyes of another. (Toles and Barosso 2017). 2. Define descriptive phenomenology and why it would be useful for this study - this question looks to use one or the other, or it may just use the broad overview Just phenomenology in general: Phenomenology is the study of the lived experience, which allows for this method to be used to study the day to day experience of a particular group of people (Toles and Barosso 2017). Its philosophical foundation began with Edmund Husserl (descriptive phenomenology) and expanded with the work of Heideggar (interpretive phenomenology) and further on with Van Manen. This approach would suit the above research question as the phenomenon of interest is ______________ (insert what the study is talking about). The researcher can decide whether to take a descriptive approach and bracket their perceptions of ______ or opt for a more interpretive approach where they acknowledge their own experiences. Define descriptive phenomenology and why it would be useful for this study: You are planning to conduct a study using descriptive phenomenology to explore first time mother’s experiences of breastfeeding within the first 3 months after birth. Developed by Husserl, descriptive phenomenology looks for researchers to go into the field with an open mind. Researchers should gather descriptions that encompass a full range of everyday life experiences, which are gathered by participants through what is seen, heard, felt remembered, acted on, and decided (Polit and Beck, 2014). This approach would suit the above research study because it looks to gather information about all aspects of the mothers experiences, including their feelings, their babies, and how they went about breastfeeding. Interpretive Phenomenology: Developed by Heideggar, interpretive phenomenology looks to understand the lived experience and not just describe it. The goal of the approach is to discover understanding, wisdom and possibilities from the study of another world (Polit and Beck 2014). This approach would suit the above research question ________________ because……. Bracketing: What is it and why would you use it: Bracketing is the process of the researcher taking the time to identify any of their preconceived notions and beliefs about the phenomenon. This process ensures that the researcher maintains an open mind and leaves any of their bias out of the final research product. (Moule, 2016). (relate back to research question also) Process used to collect data: 3. What is ethnography and what are the benefits of using this approach to undertake this study? Ethnography is the process of writing about people and culture. It is used to describe and interpret how the behavior of people is influenced by the culture they live in (Moule, 2016). The researcher inserts themselves into the field of the study that they are analyzing. This is beneficial to understanding how the Friday night youth club can affect those with depression and anxiety because the researcher can see this first hand, allowing for more detailed conclusions. Describe the term used to describe knowledge that is hard to communicate to other people: Tacit knowledge is knowledge that is difficult to transfer to another person through written and verbal communication. It is personal subjective knowledge that is gained through experience, practice and observation. Tacit knowledge comes from interactions with the group (Ellis 2022). In this proposed study, tacit knowledge may relate to how young people interact, the language that they use, and who may be closer friends with who. What is the most appropriate approach to data collection within this study? The most appropriate approach to data collection within this study is for the researcher to insert themselves into the crowd of people who go to the club on Friday nights. They would have to do this a series of times. This allows them to gain an emic perspective, which would allow them to be able to describe the rules and the ways that the culture inside the club works (Moule, 2016). The researcher will keep a diary that will allow them to be able to observe all of their data, look for patterns, and be able to formulate a thick description that analyzes the group culture as a whole. (Moule, 2016). Write short notes on the following: Define grounded theory and why it is useful for this study: Grounded theory is used to generate theories or hypotheses. It uses a set of observations and analysis of data collected to generate ideas or a theory. This is done through deductive reasoning. (Moule, 2016). It would be beneficial for this study because it would allow researchers to formulate a theory about why the tablets were introduced into the older population. An example of this theory could be that connecting the older adult to their relatives using the tablets increased happiness and decreased loneliness and depression during the times of COVID. Approach used to sampling if needed: Theoretical sampling starts with individuals that are in the research setting. For the study mentioned above, it would be older people who survived the pandemic that talk about their experiences. Then, the researcher would analyse the data and as concepts and issues emerge, the researcher will select further samples that provide further insight into the initial findings (Moule 2016). This means that the interpretation of the data is developed overtime. Discuss constant comparative analysis and how this approach is used for sampling, data collection and analysis The constant comparative method involves the ongoing comparison of the data collected during the research process to determine similarities and differences between them (Corbin and Strauss, 2015). The technique involves comparing new data and data that was previously collected and identifying similarities and differences between them. This process helps to identify patterns and themes that emerge from the data, which can be used to formulate new hypotheses and theories This method is an iterative process that involves revisiting the data multiple times to refine and develop the emerging theory. Statistics Note: Everything is dependent on the charts that are provided; highlighted/ bolded words are what is important to remember to answer the question Nominal - categories; not ordered ex.) gender, marital status, religion, type of transport, exercise, names Ordinal- ordered, categorized, and ranked ex.) on a 5 point scale, age asked in format; level of education Scale- distance between values is equal ex.) temperature, fasting blood sugar, body mass index, # of medical conditions, distance, hours of exercise, score of zero-one hundred, average results Correlation: A.) Strongest Correlation: look at the absolute value of all numbers on the chart; largest value = strongest The highest number on the table is a pearsons correlation of (insert value from chart) and this relates to the relationship between the variables ______ and ______ (in the table provided). These two variables therefore have the strongest correlation. B.) Weakest Correlation: look at the absolute value; lowest value = weakest The lowest number on the table is a pearsons correlation of (insert value from chart) and this relates to the relationship between the variables _____ and _____ (in the table provided). These two variables therefore have the weakest correlation. C.) The correlation between _____ and ______ is ______ (insert variables and number from question on actual exam). (answer just as an example with notes) value is -.54 The sign indicates the direction of the relationship as this is a minus sign that indicates an indirect relationship. * Can be indirect (-) or direct (+) To identify the strength I look at the correlation number which is 0.54. This is heading towards one so heading towards a strong relationship. I will use the Cohen and Holliday 1982 table to make a more exact judgement on the strength. As .54 falls between .40 and .69 on the table it is considered a modest relationship. * Closer to 0 equals weak relationship * Closer to 1 equals strong relationship * Cohen and Holliday * .19 and less = very weak * .20-.39 = weak * .40-.69 = modest * .70-.89 = strong * .90-1.0 = very strong I can therefore conclude that there is a modest indirect correlation relationship between _____ and _____. D.) one line newspaper headline - reports key findings ex.) secondary school students reported no relationship between how socially active they are and their physical wellbeing Part 3: Look at everything in the study provided the relation is normally written in the variable names A.) How many participants answered the question 1. Look at N 2. Add them together 3. Divide total by # of each for % ex.) 598 participants answered and this was made up of 292 males (49)% and 306 females (51 %). B.) look at each question What did it show Look at mean score, describe whether it was high or low P value - statistically significant or not P value < .5 = statistically significant P value >.5 = no statistical significance ex.) q6 and q32 examine mental health issues. Q 6 indicated that both groups overall scored positive mental health as a consequence of secondary school. Males reported a slightly higher mean score than females relating to how secondary school impacted on their mental health ( males mean 6.12 compared to females mean 5.94). This difference was found to be statistically significant as the p value was .256. Q 32 showed that the changes that secondary school and the subsequent impact on mental health was reported as having more negative impact on females than on their male colleagues. Females have a mean score of 4.96 compared to the males who scored 5.17. The p values of .531 for the difference highlights that the difference was not statistically significant. C.) outcomes with significant difference = p value less than .5 ex.) Two questions have a statistical significant difference between the groups. These were: D.) summary; impact on males and females ex.) Q 32 showed that the changes covid had on secondary school and the subsequent impact on mental health was reported as having more negative impact on females than on their male colleagues. Females had a mean score of 4.86 compared to males who scored 5.17. The p values of .531 for the difference between males and females on this question highlights that the difference was not statistically significant. Rule: looking at P value Ethics The Belmont Report (1979) reports three ethical principles: Respect, Beneficence, and Justice When conducting a research study: How do you? i. Demonstrate respect for your participants - informed consent The researcher must be honest with the participants and inform them of the potential of risks and benefits and that they can withdraw at any time. There can be no form of coercion present in deciding whether or not to participate. (Beauchamp and Childress, 2013) ii. Demonstrate beneficence for your participants The researcher should only be conducting research that aims to benefit the individual and society as a whole. Beneficence means to do good and prevent harm. (Beauchamp and Childress, 2013). iii. Demonstrate Justice for your participants The researcher must ensure that there are no discriminatory practices against any of the participants. There should be no abuse or exploitation of participants based on race, sex, religion, class, sexual orientation, etc. Overall, the interests of the participants come before the researcher and the objectives of the study. (Beauchamp and Childress, 2013). You are planning a study exploring the impact of a six-week group therapy programme for women with postnatal depression. You are planning to undertake a pre-test post-test intervention study with at least 200 women. You will use Beck’s Depression Inventory scale to measure women’s level of depression before and after the programme. You will also conduct interviews with a smaller sample of women after the six-week yoga intervention to explore in more detail how they felt about the classes and their own experience of postnatal depression iv. Describe the informed consent process you would undertake in the recruitment of women for this study. Please include details on what information you should provide on the participation leaflet for the women to read prior to giving consent. For the informed consent process, I would want to explain the study in full, including the purpose, how long it will last and what it would entail. I would also want to give them time to think about all of their options. It is important to make sure that there are no forms of coercion in the process of recruitment. In order to ensure that I have consent, I would want to create a detailed consent form that would allow the women to individually consent to each part of the study. Furthermore, I would want them to consent to the procedure before I conduct it. For example, with this study, I would want each woman to sign off on being a part of an interview and using the Beck Depression Scale. But, before I hand them the form and or conduct the interview, I would want to make sure that they know what they are participating in. Finally, I would want them to know that they have the right to withdraw at any time without penalty and can choose not to answer any questions (Doody and Noonan, 2016). In the leaflet, I would like to include all details about the study including the title, name and qualifications of the researcher, population being examined and the purpose of the study. In a separate section, I would lay out the steps of data collection and the risks and benefits that could be as a result of the study. For this study, I would include the information about the 6 week therapy, the Beck Depression Scale and the optional participation in a follow up interview. Furthermore, I would make sure that all of the data is confidential and only the researcher has access that each person consented to and how the data will be collected and stored. (Doody and Noonan, 2016). Describe how you would ensure anonymity for the women completing the Beck Depression Inventory Scale Anonymity can be ensured by not using participant names and assigning each of them a unique study number (Moule 2016). This ensures that any data cannot be linked back to a specific participant. Describe how you would ensure confidentiality for the women taking part in the qualitative interviews To ensure confidentiality, there should be no disclosure of information without their consent (Moule, 2016). Participants must know who will have access to the research, and it should only be limited to the research team. And all data should be stored on a password protected computer and or locked away so that no one can gain unlawful access. If possible, their names should remain out of interview recordings and notes. Discuss the potential risks and benefits for women taking part in this study The potential risks for women participating in this study is that confidentiality can be broken, it may be distressing to talk about their emotions and some women may feel judged. Post natal depression is a hard topic to talk about, especially with strangers. But, this study can yield potential benefits because focus groups can be seen to produce a rich dialogue (Moule et. al, 2016) and this can allow women to know that they are not alone. These women can understand their feelings more and their symptoms of depression can be reduced.

Qualitative Revision
1. Write a short outline of what qualitative research is and why it is different from quantitative research.

Qualitative and quantitative research look to answer research questions, but they do this in different ways. Quantitative research focuses on testing a hypothesis to understand the relationship between 2 variables (Ellis 2022) or answers questions with a numerical element. Qualitative looks to answer the “why” rather than the “what” or “how”. It uses words rather than numbers to see the world through the eyes of another. (Toles and Barosso 2017).

2. Define descriptive phenomenology and why it would be useful for this study - this question looks to use one or the other, or it may just use the broad overview

Just phenomenology in general: Phenomenology is the study of the lived experience, which allows for this method to be used to study the day to day experience of a particular group of people (Toles and Barosso 2017). Its philosophical foundation began with Edmund Husserl (descriptive phenomenology) and expanded with the work of Heideggar (interpretive phenomenology) and further on with Van Manen. This approach would suit the above research question as the phenomenon of interest is ______________ (insert what the study is talking about). The researcher can decide whether to take a descriptive approach and bracket their perceptions of ______ or opt for a more interpretive approach where they acknowledge their own experiences.

Define descriptive phenomenology and why it would be useful for this study: You are planning to conduct a study using descriptive phenomenology to explore first time mother’s experiences of breastfeeding within the first 3 months after birth.

Developed by Husserl, descriptive phenomenology looks for researchers to go into the field with an open mind. Researchers should gather descriptions that encompass a full range of everyday life experiences, which are gathered by participants through what is seen, heard, felt remembered, acted on, and decided (Polit and Beck, 2014).  This approach would suit the above research study because it looks to gather information about all aspects of the mothers experiences, including their feelings, their babies, and how they went about breastfeeding.

Interpretive Phenomenology:

Developed by Heideggar, interpretive phenomenology looks to understand the lived experience and not just describe it. The goal of the approach is to discover understanding, wisdom and possibilities from the study of another world (Polit and Beck 2014). This approach would suit the above research question ________________ because…….

Bracketing: What is it and why would you use it:

Bracketing is the process of the researcher taking the time to identify any of their preconceived notions and beliefs about the phenomenon. This process ensures that the researcher maintains an open mind and leaves any of their bias out of the final research product. (Moule, 2016).  (relate back to research question also)

Process used to collect data:

3. What is ethnography and what are the benefits of using this approach to undertake this study?

Ethnography is the process of writing about people and culture. It is used to describe and interpret how the behavior of people is influenced by the culture they live in (Moule, 2016). The researcher inserts themselves into the field of the study that they are analyzing. This is beneficial to understanding how the Friday night youth club can affect those with depression and anxiety because the researcher can see this first hand, allowing for more detailed conclusions.

Describe the term used to describe knowledge that is hard to communicate to other people:

Tacit knowledge is knowledge that is difficult to transfer to another person through written and verbal communication. It is personal subjective knowledge that is gained through experience, practice and observation. Tacit knowledge comes from interactions with the group (Ellis 2022). In this proposed study, tacit knowledge may relate to how young people interact, the language that they use, and who may be closer friends with who.

What is the most appropriate approach to data collection within this study?

The most appropriate approach to data collection within this study is for the researcher to insert themselves into the crowd of people who go to the club on Friday nights. They would have to do this a series of times. This allows them to gain an emic perspective, which would allow them to be able to describe the rules and the ways that the culture inside the club works (Moule, 2016). The researcher will keep a diary that will allow them to be able to observe all of their data, look for patterns, and be able to formulate a thick description that analyzes the group culture as a whole. (Moule, 2016).

Write short notes on the following:

Define grounded theory and why it is useful for this study:

Grounded theory is used to generate theories or hypotheses.  It uses a set of observations and analysis of data collected to generate ideas or a theory. This is done through deductive reasoning.  (Moule, 2016). It would be beneficial for this study because it would allow researchers to formulate a theory about why the tablets were introduced into the older population. An example of this theory could be that connecting the older adult to their relatives using the tablets increased happiness and decreased loneliness and depression during the times of COVID.

Approach used to sampling if needed:

Theoretical sampling starts with individuals that are in the research setting. For the study mentioned above, it would be older people who survived the pandemic that talk about their experiences. Then, the researcher would analyse the data and as concepts and issues emerge, the researcher will select further samples that provide further insight into the initial findings (Moule 2016). This means that the interpretation of the data is developed overtime.

Discuss constant comparative analysis and how this approach is used for sampling, data collection and analysis

The constant comparative method involves the ongoing comparison of the data collected during the research process to determine similarities and differences between them (Corbin and Strauss, 2015). The technique involves comparing new data and data that was previously collected and identifying similarities and differences between them. This process helps to identify patterns and themes that emerge from the data, which can be used to formulate new hypotheses and theories This method is an iterative process that involves revisiting the data multiple times to refine and develop the emerging theory. 
Statistics
Note: Everything is dependent on the charts that are provided; highlighted/ bolded words are what is important to remember to answer the question

Nominal - categories; not ordered 
        ex.) gender, marital status, religion, type of transport, exercise, names

Ordinal- ordered, categorized, and ranked 
        ex.) on a 5 point scale, age asked in format; level of education

Scale- distance between values is equal 
        ex.) temperature, fasting blood sugar, body mass index, # of medical conditions, distance, hours of exercise, score of zero-one hundred, average results

Correlation:

A.) Strongest Correlation: look at the absolute value of all numbers on the chart; largest value = strongest 
        The highest number on the table is a pearsons correlation of (insert value from chart) and this relates to the relationship between the variables ______ and ______ (in the table provided). These two variables therefore have the strongest correlation.

B.) Weakest Correlation: look at the absolute value; lowest value = weakest 
        The lowest number on the table is a pearsons correlation of (insert value from chart) and this relates to the relationship between the variables _____ and _____ (in the table provided). These two variables therefore have the weakest correlation.

C.) The correlation between _____ and ______ is ______ (insert variables and number from question on actual exam). 
(answer just as an example with notes) value is -.54

The sign indicates the direction of the relationship as this is a minus sign that indicates an indirect relationship. 
* Can be indirect (-) or direct (+)

To identify the strength I look at the correlation number which is 0.54. This is heading towards one so heading towards a strong relationship. I will use the Cohen and Holliday 1982 table to make a more exact judgement on the strength. As .54 falls between .40 and .69 on the table it is considered a modest relationship. 
* Closer to 0 equals weak relationship 
* Closer to 1 equals strong relationship 
* Cohen and Holliday 
   * .19 and less = very weak 
   * .20-.39 = weak 
   * .40-.69 = modest 
   * .70-.89 = strong 
   * .90-1.0 = very strong

I can therefore conclude that there is a modest indirect correlation relationship between _____ and _____.

D.) one line newspaper headline - reports key findings 
        ex.) secondary school students reported no relationship between how socially active they are and their physical wellbeing

Part 3: Look at everything in the study provided the relation is normally written in the variable names

A.) How many participants answered the question 
1. Look at N   2. Add them together   3. Divide total by # of each for % 
        ex.) 598 participants answered and this was made up of 292 males (49)% and 306 females (51 %).

B.) look at each question 
What did it show 
Look at mean score, describe whether it was high or low 
P value - statistically significant or not 
        P value < .5 = statistically significant 
        P value >.5 = no statistical significance

ex.) q6 and q32 examine mental health issues. Q 6 indicated that both groups overall scored positive mental health as a consequence of secondary school. Males reported a slightly higher mean score than females relating to how secondary school impacted on their mental health ( males mean 6.12 compared to females mean 5.94). This difference was found to be statistically significant as the p value was .256. Q 32 showed that the changes that secondary school and the subsequent impact on mental health was reported as having more negative impact on females than on their male colleagues. Females have a mean score of 4.96 compared to the males who scored 5.17. The p values of .531 for the difference highlights that the difference was not statistically significant. 
C.) outcomes with significant difference = p value less than .5 
        ex.) Two questions have a statistical significant difference between the groups. These were:

D.) summary; impact on males and females 
        ex.) Q 32 showed that the changes covid had on secondary school and the subsequent impact on mental health was reported as having more negative impact on females than on their male colleagues. Females had a mean score of 4.86 compared to males who scored 5.17. The p values of .531 for the difference between males and females on this question highlights that the difference was not statistically significant.

Rule: looking at P value 
Ethics
The Belmont Report (1979) reports three ethical principles: Respect, Beneficence, and Justice 
When conducting a research study: How do you?

i. Demonstrate respect for your participants - informed consent 
        The researcher must be honest with the participants and inform them of the potential of risks and benefits and that they can withdraw at any time. There can be no form of coercion present in deciding whether or not to participate. (Beauchamp and Childress, 2013)

ii. Demonstrate beneficence for your participants 
        The researcher should only be conducting research that aims to benefit the individual and society as a whole. Beneficence means to do good and prevent harm. (Beauchamp and Childress, 2013).

iii. Demonstrate Justice for your participants
The researcher must ensure that there are no discriminatory practices against any of the participants. There should be no abuse or exploitation of participants based on race, sex, religion, class, sexual orientation, etc. Overall, the interests of the participants come before the researcher and the objectives of the study. (Beauchamp and Childress, 2013).

You are planning a study exploring the impact of a six-week group therapy programme for

women with postnatal depression. You are planning to undertake a pre-test post-test

intervention study with at least 200 women. You will use Beck’s Depression Inventory scale to

measure women’s level of depression before and after the programme. You will also conduct

interviews with a smaller sample of women after the six-week yoga intervention to explore in

more detail how they felt about the classes and their own experience of postnatal depression

iv. Describe the informed consent process you would undertake in the recruitment of women for this study. Please include details on what information you should provide on the participation leaflet for the women to read prior to giving consent.

For the informed consent process, I would want to explain the study in full, including the purpose, how long it will last and what it would entail. I would also want to give them time to think about all of their options. It is important to make sure that there are no forms of coercion in the process of recruitment. 
In order to ensure that I have consent, I would want to create a detailed consent form that would allow the women to individually consent to each part of the study. Furthermore, I would want them to consent to the procedure before I conduct it. For example, with this study, I would want each woman to sign off on being a part of an interview and using the Beck Depression Scale. But, before I hand them the form and or conduct the interview, I would want to make sure that they know what they are participating in. Finally, I would want them to know that they have the right to withdraw at any time without penalty and can choose not to answer any questions (Doody and Noonan, 2016). 
In the leaflet, I would like to include all details about the study including the title, name and qualifications of the researcher, population being examined and the purpose of the study. In a separate section, I would lay out the steps of data collection and the risks and benefits that could be as a result of the study.  For this study, I would include the information about the 6 week therapy, the Beck Depression Scale and the optional participation in a follow up interview.

Furthermore, I would make sure that all of the data is confidential and only the researcher has access that each person consented to and how the data will be collected and stored. (Doody and Noonan, 2016).

Describe how you would ensure anonymity for the women completing the Beck Depression Inventory Scale

Anonymity can be ensured by not using participant names and assigning each of them a unique study number (Moule 2016). This ensures that any data cannot be linked back to a specific participant.

Describe how you would ensure confidentiality for the women taking part in the qualitative interviews

To ensure confidentiality, there should be no disclosure of information without their consent (Moule, 2016).  Participants must know who will have access to the research, and it should only be limited to the research team. And all data should be stored on a password protected computer and or locked away so that no one can gain unlawful access. If possible, their names should remain out of interview recordings and notes.

Discuss the potential risks and benefits for women taking part in this study

The potential risks for women participating in this study is that confidentiality can be broken, it may be distressing to talk about their emotions and some women may feel judged. Post natal depression is a hard topic to talk about, especially with strangers. 
But, this study can yield potential benefits because focus groups can be seen to produce a rich dialogue (Moule et. al, 2016) and this can allow women to know that they are not alone. These women can understand their feelings more and their symptoms of depression can be reduced.

Transcript for:Understanding Qualitative Research Approaches

Transcript for:
Understanding Qualitative Research Approaches