ATITs Anatomy and Physiology Overview

Introduction

• Essential for healthcare college exams like ATITs
• Covers all body systems
• Focus: Human anatomy and physiology

Anatomical Terminology

• Cephalic: Head
• Cranial: Skull
• Facial: Face
• Frontal: Forehead
• Occipital: Base of skull
• Temporal: Temple area
• Orbital/Ocular: Eyes
• Optic: Ears
• Buccal: Cheek
• Nasal: Nose
• Oral: Mouth
• Mental: Chin
• Cervical: Neck
• Sternal: Breast bone (CPR)
• Thoracic: Chest
• Mammary: Breasts
• Acromial: Shoulder
• Scapular: Shoulder blade
• Vertebral: Spinal column
• Lumbar: Lower back
• Dorsal: Back
• Axillary: Armpit
• Brachial: Arm
• Anti-brachial: Forearm
• Carpal: Wrist
• Palmer: Palm
• Pollex: Thumb
• Dorsum: Back of hand
• Manual: Hand
• Digital/Phalangeal: Fingers
• Abdominal: Abdomen
• Umbilical: Navel
• Cocca: Hips
• Sacral: Between hips
• Coccygeal: Tail bone
• Gluteal: Buttocks
• Pelvic: Pelvis
• Pubic: Pubis area
• Perineal: Between anus and external genitalia
• Inguinal: Groin
• Femoral: Thigh
• Patella: Front of knee
• Popliteal: Back of knee
• Crural: Shin
• Sural: Calf
• Pedal: Foot
• Tarsal: Ankle
• Plantar: Sole of foot
• Calcaneal: Heel
• Dorsum (Foot): Top of foot
• Hallux: Great toe

Positioning and Direction

• Anterior: Towards the front (e.g., kneecap)
• Posterior: Towards the back (e.g., shoulder blades)
• Superior: Towards the head (e.g., hand as part of superior extremity)
• Inferior: Towards the feet (e.g., foot as part of inferior extremity)
• Medial: Towards the midline (e.g., chest is medial to arms)
• Lateral: Away from midline (e.g., little toe is lateral to big toe)
• Proximal: Closer to the trunk (e.g., proximal femur to pelvic bone)
• Distal: Farther from the trunk (e.g., hand is distal to the shoulder)

Anatomical Planes

• Sagittal/Median: Divides body into right and left
• Frontal/Coronal: Divides body into anterior and posterior halves
• Transverse/Cross-Section: Divides body into superior (top) and inferior (bottom) halves

Body Systems Overview

Respiratory System

• Structure: Nose, mouth, throat, larynx, trachea, bronchi, lungs
• Function: Inhale oxygen, exhale CO2
  • Process: Diaphragm contracts → Volume in thoracic cavity increases → Air flows in → Gas exchange in alveoli
• Diseases: Pneumonia, bronchitis, asthma, mucous buildup
• Factors: Smoking, pollution, allergies, inflammation

Cardiovascular System

• Structure: Heart (4 chambers: right/left atrium, right/left ventricle), blood vessels (arteries, veins, capillaries), blood
• Function: Pump blood, deliver oxygen/nutrients, remove CO2/waste
  • Systole: Heart contracts, pumps blood to arteries
  • Diastole: Heart relaxes, chambers fill with blood
• Electrical System: SA node (primary pacemaker), AV node, Bundle of His, Purkinje fibers (ventricles)
• Blood Flow: Oxygenated blood → Arteries → Body → Capillaries (exchange) → Veins (deoxygenated blood) → Heart → Lungs (exchange CO2 for O2)
• Functions:
  • Maintain blood pressure
  • Body temperature regulation
  • pH balance
  • Hormone transport
  • Infection resistance
  • Tissue repair

Digestive System

• Structure: Mouth, esophagus, stomach, small/large intestines, rectum
• Process:
  • Mouth: Mechanical/chemical breakdown
  • Esophagus: Peristalsis to stomach
  • Stomach: Chemical digestion with enzymes/gastric acid
  • Small Intestine: Main site of nutrient absorption
  • Large Intestine: Absorbs water, electrolytes, vitamins
  • Rectum: Stores feces for elimination
• Accessory Organs: Teeth, tongue, salivary glands, liver, gallbladder, pancreas
• Enzymes/Hormones:
  • Gastrin: Stimulates stomach acid
  • CCK: Releases enzymes/bile
  • Secretin: Produces bicarbonate
  • Insulin: Regulates blood sugar
  • Glucagon: Releases glucose
  • Bile: Breaks down fats

Nervous System

• CNS: Brain, spinal cord (central command)
• PNS: Nerves from spinal cord (signal targets)
• Neurons: Cell body, dendrites, axon
  • Cell Body: Nucleus
  • Dendrites: Generate impulses
  • Axon: Transmits signals
• Neuron Types:
  • Sensory (Afferent): To CNS
  • Motor (Efferent): To muscles
    • Autonomic (Involuntary): Heart rate, digestion
    • Somatic (Voluntary): Limb movement

Muscular System

• Muscle Types:
  • Skeletal: Attached to bones, voluntary, striated
  • Cardiac: Heart muscle, involuntary, striated
  • Smooth: Interior organs, involuntary, non-striated
• Functions:
  • Body movement
  • Generate force via contraction
  • Muscle-nervous system interaction
  • Named muscles: ~700, half of body weight

Reproductive System

• Male:
  • Structures: Testes, epididymis, vas deferens, seminal vesicles, prostate, penis
  • Functions: Sperm/testosterone production and release, fluid for sperms
• Female:
  • Structures: Ovaries, Fallopian tubes, uterus, vagina, vulva
  • Functions: Produce eggs/hormones, nourish fetus, menstruation, birth canal
• Endocrine Relationship: Hormones control reproduction
  • Gonadotropin: Stimulates FSH/LH
  • FSH/LH: Growth of eggs, ovulation
  • Testosterone: Sperm/male development
  • Estrogen: Female development, menstrual cycle

Integumentary System

• Structure: Skin (epidermis, dermis, hypodermis), hair, nails, sweat glands
  • Epidermis: Outer, protective barrier
  • Dermis: Middle, contains blood vessels/hair follicles
  • Hypodermis: Inner, fat/connective tissue
• Functions:
  • Protection
  • Temperature regulation
  • Sensation
  • Homeostasis

Endocrine System

• Structure: Glands (pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid, thymus, adrenal, pancreas, testes)
  • Pituitary: Growth hormone, prolactin
  • Thyroid: Thyroxine, calcitonin
  • Parathyroid: Parathyroid hormone
  • Thymus: Thymosin (immune development)
  • Adrenal: Epinephrine, norepinephrine
  • Pancreas: Insulin, glucagon
  • Testes: Testosterone
• Functions: Growth, metabolism, reproduction, mood
• Homeostasis: Maintains via hormone regulation, feedback mechanisms
  • Positive Feedback: Amplifies change (e.g., oxytocin during childbirth)
  • Negative Feedback: Reverses change (e.g., insulin for high blood sugar)

Urinary System

• Structure: Kidneys, renal cortex/medulla, ureters, bladder, urethra
  • Kidneys: Filter blood, produce urine
  • Renal Cortex: Outer layer (pyramids, vessels)
  • Renal Medulla: Inner layer (urine concentration)
  • Ureters: Transport urine to bladder
  • Bladder: Store urine
  • Urethra: Excretes urine
• Function: Homeostasis, blood filtration, waste excretion
• Cardiovascular Relationship: Transports blood, stimulates RBC production

Immune System

• Innate Defense: First line (skin, mucous, enzymes)
  • Inflammatory Response: Blood vessel dilation, WBCs
  • Histamines: Increase blood flow
  • Phagocytes: Destroy bacteria
• Adaptive Defense: Second line (lymphatic system, WBCs, antibodies)
  • Antigens: Foreign Invaders
  • APCs: Present antigens
  • Helper T Cells: Activate immune cells
  • Cytotoxic T Cells: Destroy infected cells
  • Cytokines: Regulate immune response
  • Antibodies: Destroy antigens
  • Memory Cells: Remember and respond to infections
• Immunity Types:
  • Passive: Received from others (e.g., mother’s milk)
  • Active: Body produces its own (longer-lasting)

Skeletal System

• Structure: Bones (long, short, flat, irregular), joints, ligaments
  • Long Bones: Arms, legs
  • Short Bones: Wrists, ankles
  • Flat Bones: Ribs, sternum, scapulae, hips
  • Irregular Bones: Spine
• Bone Tissues: Compact, spongy
  • Compact Bone: Outer layer, protection/support
  • Spongy Bone: Porous, lightweight
  • Cancellous Bone: Spongy with cavities
  • Trabecular Bone: Honeycomb structure
  • Bone Marrow: Produces blood cells
• Skeletal-Muscular Relationship: Movement, tendon connection
  • Example: Biceps brachii contracts → Arm moves

Conclusion

• Understanding anatomy and physiology is crucial for ATITs exams.
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