Understanding Prejudice, Aggression, Intimacy, and Helping

EXAM 3 STUDY GUIDE Chapter 9: Prejudice * What are the differences between prejudice, stereotypes, and discrimination? * Prejudice comes in many forms, from our own group and against some other people * Religion: * After 9/11, Americans had a strong sense of national identity and expressed a strong disdain towards Iraq and Afghan communities. * There was a strong disdain against Arabic cultures. * Hiring managers wouldn’t hire muslim people nor would they pay them the same. * Obesity: * Weight discrimination exceeds gender and racism. * It occurs at every stage of employment. * 2.2 million social media posts contained words fat or obese followed by extreme fat shaming. * Most common shaming amongst white women. * Prejudice/Discrimination has not declined since 2007 * Obesity is the root of a lot of childhood bullying * Sexual orientation: * Gay youth and bully culture * Age: * Elderly tend to get treated in a patronizing way and this leads to the elderly feeling incompetent. * Immigrants: * A lot of anti immigrant prejudice amongst: * British-Pakistanians, west indies * German-Turks * French-North Africans * Americans-Latin Americans and Muslims * In 2018 study showed that 3 of 4 people in Hungary and Greece felt immigrants to be a burden * Politics: * Democrats vs Republicans * Democrats hate republicans as much as republicans hate democrats and are biased to their own sides. * They think their party is what’s best for the country. * Prejudice, stereotyping, discrimination, racism, and sexism are terms that overlap * These all involve a negative evaluation of a group * Prejudice: Preconceived negative judgement of a group and its individual members * The negative evaluation of a group * Prejudiced people may dislike those different from themselves and behave toward them in a discriminatory manner, believing them ignorant and dangerous. * Prejudice is an attitude * ABCs of Attitude * A-Affect-feelings * B-Behavior- inclinations to act * C-Cognitions- beliefs * Stereotypes: Beliefs about the personal attributes of a group of people * Overgeneralized, inaccurate, and restraint to new information (and sometimes accurate) * Sensitivity to diversity * Cultural awareness * Examples: * British: they are reserved, stiff upper lip, value hierarchy, focused on productivity * Americans: Loud, overly patriotic, obsessed with individualism * Austrlians: laid back, straight forward, very informal, relaxed lifestyle, prioritize work-life balance * Stereotypes can be more or less true and they are not always negative * Example: * Elderly stereotypes: they are fragile, but this is true * Australians stereotypes: use a lot of foul language compared to Americans or British * If someone has a particular stereotype and the given information contradicts their beliefs, it is really hard for someone to reconcile that information and change their beliefs * Common stereotypes * Non whites are all on welfare * All muslims are terrorists * All evangelicals hate homosexuals * All priests are pedophiles * Discrimination: Unjustified negative behavior toward a group or it’s members and stems from prejudicial attitudes * In order to qualify as discrimination, there has to be a behavioral response * Examples/Studies * Mujcic & Frijters, 2020: * They wanted to know what would happen if people would show up to the bus without money. Would the driver let them ride for free? * Driver let 72% caucasian riders go for free * Driver let 36% african american riders go for free * Study about discrimination * Carpusor & Loges, 2006: * Sent identically worded emails but one signed with a caucasian name and one signed with an arab name, and one signed with african american name. * 89% favored the caucasian name * 66% if arab name * 56% if african american name * Define Racisim and Sexisim. * Racism: Prejudicial attitudes and discriminatory behavior toward people of a given race * Example: * Racial profiling * Black individuals are disproportionately stopped and searched by police versus white people * Sexism: Prejudicial attitudes and discriminatory behavior toward people of a given sex * Example: * Gender based work discrimination * A woman in a meeting with men of the same professional level, the men might ask the woman to make the coffee * Having a male boss refer to female employees as sweetheart or darling * Unequal pay for the same work * Mansplaining: When a man unnecessarily explains something in a condescending way * What are implicit and explicit attitudes? How are they measured? * Prejudice: Implicit and Explicit * Dual Attitude System * Some attitudes are explicit (conscious) and others are implicit (automatic) * Implicit Association Test (IAT): Assess “implicit cognition” - our often-unacknowledged inner beliefs that may or may not correspond to our explicit (conscious) attitudes * Even when explicit attitudes change dramatically with education, implicit attitudes may linger * Example: * Growing up in an anti-LGBTQIA household but then you go to college and befriend queer people. Explicitly, attitudes may be changed but implicitly, attitudes may have not changed. * IAT Studies show that our responses can be stereotype and prejudice in ways that are deeply rooted and we cannot control these things * Is racial prejudice disappearing? * Very clear no. * Whites will compare past to now and assume we have made racial progress * From slavery, jim crow, segregation to now * Blacks will look at current world in comparison to their “ideal world” where everything is equal * From their perspective, no, not a lot of change changed * Lived experience and historical context is vital to understanding * Racial prejudice * In context of the world, every race is a minority * Non-hispanic whites are ⅕ of the world’s people and will be ⅛ within another half century * Mobility and migration * Nature doesn't closer races in neatly defined categories * Skin color is trivial, humans put people into racial categories * Examples * Barack Obama: Mom was white and dad was black but we categorize him as black * Meghan Markle: Mom was black and dad was white but categorized as black * In the US, this perception differs markedly depending on whether one is white or black * Difference highlight how perspectives on racial equality differ based on lived experience and historical context * Modern prejudice appears subtly, in our preference for what is familiar, similar, and comfortable * What are some subtle forms of prejudice? * Employment discrimination * Bertrand & Mullainathan, 2003: * Sent 5000 resumes in response to employment ads, some applications had more white name and others had more black name * White names got 1 call per 10 applications * Black names got 1 call per 15 applications * Favoritism in AirBnB, Uber, Lyft * AirBnB: * Hosts are less likely to accept applicants from guests with african american sounding names * Uber/Lyft * If you have an african american sounding name it leads to longer wait times and ride requests being cancelled * Interactions with the police * African americans are more likely to be stopped, searched, handcuffed, physically grabbed and have police be aggressive with them * Patronization * Race sensitivity * People are so concerned about not appearing prejudice that they overpraise and then this leads to not receiving the same feedback * Harber, 1988: * White students were given poorly written essays to read. Some were told the race of the student who wrote the essay. * Research found that when the students believed the author was black, they lowered their standards when evaluating the essays and were less likely to recommend feedback to black writers. * Students were so worried about being perceived as prejudice that they bent over backwards to give unhelpful/non honest feedback * What is automatic prejudice? What studies support this concept? * Automatic (Implicit) prejudice matters * In some situations it can have a life or death consequences * People feel tired, threatened, unsafe, people are more likely to rely on implicit attitudes * Brain activity in the amygdala, a region that underlies fear and aggression, facilitates automatic responding * Amygdala get activated when you feel you are in an unsafe area and facilitate/help you rely on your implicit attitudes * Correll, 2002,2007,2015; Sadler et al., 2012 and Greenwald, 2003: * Had participants come in and told them to press shoot when a man with a gun comes on the the screen and to not shoot if the item is harmless * Study showed that both Black and White people were more likely to misperceived the harmless object as a gun, they were more likely to feel threatened and more likely to shoot * Follow up study but added black males versus black females holding a weapon/harmless hobject * Implicit attitudes showed that people felt the black males were more dangerous * Payne, 2001,2006 and Judd et al., 2004: * Had participants come in and were primed meaning you saw a white face ahead of time or a black face ahead of time and then they wanted you to be able to recognize if the person was holding a gun or if they were holding something non harmful * They were assessing weapon biased * What they found was that if you were primed with a black face you were more likely to identify the gun if it was a gun and misidentify the non harmful object * What are three aspects of gender stereotypes? (Fill in the blank) * Strong gender stereotypes exist. * Beliefs about how women and men actually behave * Members of the stereotype group accept the stereotypes. * Most believe that men and women are different yet equal. * Gender norms vs. Gender stereotypes * Norms are perspective, they tell us how we are supposed to behave * Example * Men should be assertive and women should be nurturing * Men should go to work and women should stay home * Gender stereotypes are actual beliefs about men and women * They are descriptive * Examples * Men don’t understand emotions * Women aren’t good at math * Women-are-wonderful effect (eagly, 1994): * Dubbed this stereotype that women are kind and understanding and helpful. * People like women more than men * What are some examples of benevolent sexism and hostile sexism? * Two forms of gender bias that operate in different ways, but both reinforce gender inequality * Benevolent Sexism: appears positive, but is still harmful; reinforces gender roles and limits women’s independence * Examples: * Idea that women are delicate, nurturing, need protection * Reinforces idea that “women cant handle it” and keeps women in a cage * Men say “let me handle that” * Damsel in distress * Hostile sexism: overt and aggressive form of sexism * Examples: * Strong beliefs that women are incompetent * Beliefs that women are overly emotional * Belief that women are trying to take away power from men * Workplace discrimination * Dismissive attitude towards women * Belief that women are trying to manipulate men * Belief that women are trying to get people to pay for things * Belief that this played a role in why people won’t vote a woman into office * Glick & Fiske, 1996, 2007, 2011: developed Ambivalent Sexism Theory (benevolent/hostile sexism) * How does gender discrimination differ in Western and Non-Western countries? * Western * Experiments have not demonstrated any overall tendency to devalue women’s work - people asking have gender bias extinct? No. * #MeToo movement in 2017 * Women reported widespread sexual harassment in th workplace often perpetuated by powerful men protected by others * 2018 poll: 81% of women experienced some form of sexual harassment * Non-Western * Non western countries gender bias is still strong * Women ad ⅔ of the world’s illiterate * UN,2015 * Biggest violence against women may occur prenatally * Many families prefer that they have a baby boy * 1941: Survey, 38% of US parents wanted a boy * 2018: 36% still wanted a boy * Gender discrimination is very prominent * Europeans-86% say women and should have the same rights * Middle eastern-48% say men and women should have the same rights * India: For ever 111 there’s only 100 girl births * 63 million missing women * People are terminating pregnancies if they are baby girls * China: 2017 95% of children in orphanages were girls * Law: Criminal offense to terminate pregnancy based on gender * Shortage of females around the world contributes to * Violence * Crime * Prostitution * Trafficking * What are the social sources of prejudice? * People differing in social status and their desire to justify and maintain those differences * If someone is on the top of the hierarchy, and want to stay there, then they use prejudices * Learned from parents as they socialize us about what differences matter * Learned as a child * Social institutions that maintain and support prejudice * Media and TV * Social Inequalities: unequal status is a breeding group for prejudice * Once the inequalities are created, it only benefits high status people remain there * Unequal status breeds prejudice * Example: * Justification of slavery * Owners viewed them as lazy, lacking ability, and beliefs justified and supported prejudice * 19th century * Politicians justified the imperial expansions by identifying indigenous people as inferior and weak * “These people need us to take the land” * Social dominance orientation * Motivation to have one’s group dominate other social groups * People do whatever they can to maintain status aka engaging in prejudice * Being in a dominant, high status position tends to promote this orientation and justification * People view people in terms of hierarchy * Prefer professions like politics or business * Breeds distrust and prejudice * Prejudice can come from our acquired values and attitudes * Acquired from families and communities * Children’s implicit racial attitudes reflect their parents’ explicit racial attitudes * Families and culture can pass along information regarding whom to trust and dislike * Example: * Taught women stay home * We only drive american cars * Theodor Adorno & Colleagues (1950): * Wanted to understand the psychological roots of antisemitism * The hostility towards jews often coexisted with hostility towards other minority groups * Prejudice against one group extends to prejudice against all marginalized groups * Also found these people have an authoritarian personality * Authoritarian personality * Intolerance for weakness, punitive attitude and submissive respect for their group’s authority * Personality that is disposed to favor obedience to authority and intolerance of outgroups and those lower in status * Religion and prejudice * In almost every country, leaders invoke religion to sanctify the present order * Use of religion to support injustice helps explain a pair of findings concerning North American Christianity * White church members express more racial prejudice than nonmembers * Those professing traditional or fundamentalist Christian beliefs express moer prejudice than those professing more progressive beliefs * Conformity * If prejudice is socially accepted, many people will follow the path of least resistance and conform to the fashion * If prejudice is not deeply ingrained in personality, then as fashions change and new norms evolve, prejudice can diminish * Not about a need to hate or dislike a certain group * It’s what your group does and as attitudes change then you change your attitude will change to remain accepted by the group * Institutional Support * Government/Schools * Can have overt policies but sometimes passive * Example: * Until the 1970s banks would routinely deny mortgages to unmarried women, or if minority * Recent years, will change black/latino homeowners higher interest rates or find reasons to reject their applications * Media * Glee * Reinforces stereotypes and exaggerated stereotypes * Santana Lopez: spicy, hyper sexualized, latina * Tina Chang and Mike Chang: Asian parents being hard on their kids and need academic pressure * Mercedes Jones: Sassy black girl * Rachel Berry: Jewish American princess, materialistic, bossey, scene of her wanting a nose job * Dane Archer (1983) * Examined 1750000 photographs of people in newspapers * Face-ism * Ad with a man, you see face (apple example) * ⅔ of images * Ad with a woman, it’s their body * Less than 50% showed female faces * Reflects gender biased that women are known for their bodies * Eamples: * Skincare: * Marketed as tropical or sunkissed * Dark skin perceived as exotic * How do institutional supports bolster prejudice? * Institutional Racism: refers to policies, practices, or systems within institutions that disproportionately disadvantaged certain racial groups * Examples: * Health care disparities: Black people are less likely to receive life saving treatment and their symptoms are often downplayed or ignored * When working for a small company, hiring can often occur by word-of-mouth. If the company is predominately white, then most like will only hire white people even though the employer had no intention on behaving in a discriminatory manner * Institutional Sexism: Refuses to systemic policies, practices, ad structures that disproportionately disadvantage people based on their gender * Examples: * Women are underrepresented in leadership roles * Legal inequalities: No laws for parental leave, reproductive rights, the policies disproportionally disadvantage women * Denial of extended pregnancy leave due to postpartum depression * The US doesn’t do things to support women having babies * What are motivational sources of prejudice? * Social Identity theory: feeling superior to others * We are naturally social * We tend to like people from our own groups * Social Identity * The “we” aspect of our self concept; the part of our answer to “who am I?” that comes from our group memberships * According to Turner and Tajfel’s social identity theory * We categorize * We identify * We compare * Ingroup: “us’” a group of people who share a sense of belonging, a feeling of common identity * Outgroup: “them,” a group that people perceive as distinctively different from or part from their ingroup * Ingroup Bias * Tendency to favor one’s own group * Supports positive self concept * Mus ingroup liking foster outgroup disliking? * As we see virtue in us, we see evil in them * Bias is less a matter of dislike, however than of support for one’s own group * How does the scapegoat theory explain motivation to be prejudiced? * The Scapegoat Theory: frustration and aggression * Often times when we are feeling frustrated because we can’t get something we want, it can trigger hostile behaviors * If the frustration source is unknown or intimidating, we will displace aggression onto easier target * Displaced aggression * Hate crimes * Realistic group conflict theory * Prejudice arises from competition between groups for scarce resources * Example: * Fear in US that immigrants are taking jobs but the people who fear this are on the lower economic ladder * They are the ones that will fear someone taking their jobs because they don’t feel secure in their own jobs * Canada: relation to unemployment rates * Unemployment rates high: immigrants not welcomed * Unemployment rates low: immigrants welcomed * Example: * On freeway and need to go to the bathroom but in traffic→ can lead to frustration * Lynchings of African Americans 1882 and 1930 were highest when cotton prices were low and economic frustration were high * Plantation owners experienced economic frustrations and displaced frustrations under the guise of a direct link to African Americans * Following WW1, Germany went through economic collapse * Seeing the Jewish community as the villain happened before Hitler came into power * After 9/11 * Those that had large fears had greatest intolerance for immigrants/middle easterns * How does motivation to avoid prejudice lead people to modify their thoughts and actions? * Breaking the prejudice habit is not easy, unwanted thoughts and feelings can be persistent * Prejudicial reactions are not inevitable-the motivation to avoid prejudice can lead people to want to modify their thoughts and actions * Awareness of the gap between how one should feel and how one does feel * Unwanted thoughts and feelings can be persistent * example, * on a diet and trying to control it but you will think about food * romantically interested in unavailable coworker you will naturally want them more * High level or low level of prejudices have same level of automatic beliefs * People who are motivated to not be prejudices can modify implicit beliefs * What are cognitive sources of prejudice? * Categorization: Classifying people into groups * Simplify our environment by categorizing * Beneficial ration of information to expended * Cognitive efficiency * Categorizing people is just what we do naturally and helps us move through society more quickly * Serves an evolutionary function * Prejudice doesn't exist because of stereotypes but we use stereotypes to engage in prejudicial behavior * Categorizing isn’t the problem, it’s what we do with them that causes an issue * How does spontaneous categorization act as a foundation for prejudice? * Spontaneous Categorization: * We find it especially easy and efficient to rely on stereotype when we are: * Pressed for time, preoccupied, tired, and emotionally aroused * Ethnicity and sex are powerful ways of categorizing people * Example * Julian is a 45 year old African American man who is a man from atlanta * The two things that you will walk away with is that he is a man and African American * How do perceived similarities and differences act as a foundation for prejudice? * What is the outgroup homogeneity effect? * Outgroup Homogeneity Effect: perception of outgroup members as more similar to one another than are ingroup members * “They are alike” and “we are diverse” * When we assign people to groups we tend to over exaggerate how similar they are and how different they are to our group * Example * Engineering major * Automatically: we make all engineering majors are like this and the difference between them and us will be over exaggerated * What is own-race bias? * Own-race bias: Tendency for people to more accurately recognize faces of their own race * Example: * If someone is a white and they show a white bouncer a fake ID, they are the bouncer is more likely to distinguish that isn’t the same person in the ID, if they aren’t white then they may have a harder time distinguishing whether it is them or not * How does distinctiveness and perceptions of those who stand out affect prejudice? * Distinctiveness: Perceiving people who stand out * Distinctive people and vivid cases often capture attention and distort judgements * Example: * Tall basketball player * Connection happens when you are the only person of your gender/race/ethnicity/accet/etc. in the room * Example: * If you're a female in a room of all men, you become immediately aware of how different you are and for them men, you are the distinctive one in the room and you will be what they judge for all the good qualities of women and all the bad qualities of women. * Feeds on self-consciousness * Example: * Only black person in high school, then they are on edge and feel like they are receiving poor service/experience * Kleck & Strenta, 1980 * Wanted to see what would happen when you walk into a room when you felt significant uncomfortable with your appearance * They had female participants at Dartmouth college and told them they were assessing people’s reactions when they had significant facial scarring. * They had people come in and use theatrical makeup on their face, they showed the women what they would look like before they walked out there and then after, they told women “i just need to touch it up a little bit” but they actual removed the scar but the participants were unaware of the removal * Participants reported feeling more self conscious, often reported people were rude to them or misinterpreted people’s mannerisms and comments showing that they were so focused on the scar that it impacted their perception of social acceptance * Our minds use distinctive or vivid cases as a shortcut to judging others * Given limited experience with a particular social group, we recall examples of it and generalize it * Can prime the stereotype * Distinctive events foster illusory correlations * Stereotypes assume a correlation between group membership and individuals’ presumed characteristics * Attentiveness to unusual occurrences can create illusory correlations * Pre-existing stereotypes can lead us to see correlations that aren't there * Our minds use distinctive or vivid cases as a shortcut to judging groups * What is stigma consciousness? * Expectation of being stereotyped. * High stigma consciousness causes stress and hypervigilance. * Define group-serving bias. * Group-Serving Bias * Pettigrew (1979,1980) * Explaining away outgroup members’ positive behaviors; also attributing negative behaviors to their dispositions * Example: * Someone in our own group donates money to a good cause we think “of course they did it because they are a good person” but someone in an outgroup does it we say “of course they are doing that they only want to better their resume, etc.” * We often give our own group the benefit of the double * Duncan (1976) * Research when white guy bumped into another white guy they saw it as a light push but when a black guy bumped a white guy they felt it was a more violent gesture * Define just-world phenomenon. * When explaining people’s behavior we frequently use the Fundamental Attribution Error * We tend to discount situational factors * Just-World Phenomenon * Taught to believe that the world is a just place and that people will get what they deserve * If we work hard we will be rewarded * Want to justify our good fortune by attributing positive behaviors to us but if somebody else doesn't have those positive outcomes we blame it on them and not their circumstances * A strategy viewed by a lot of people who have wealth views * Disregards circumstances that are not within one’s control * Lerner et al., (1978,1980) * Tendency of people to believe that the world is just and that people therefore get what they deserve and deserve what they get * Allows the wealthy and healthy to justify their opinions and actions * What are the consequences of prejudice? * Self perpetuating prejudgements * Whenever a member of a group behaves as expected, we duly note the fact; our prior belief is confirmed * When a member of a group behaves inconsistently with our expectations, we may interpret or explain away the behavior as due to special circumstances * Prejudgements guide our attention and guide our memory * We will look for information that confirms our belief systems * The Self-Fulfilling Prophecy * Social beliefs can become self confirming * Prejudice affects its targets * What is subtyping vs. subgrouping? * Subtyping: Accommodating individuals who deviate from one's stereotype b thinking of them as the “exception to the rule” * The person who deviates is the exception * Example: * You have a belief system that men cannot be a stay at home father and you are at a parent group and see a stay at home father and think “wow he is really kind and thoughtful, etc” that may not fit with your stereotype so he would be the exception. * You hold onto your stereotype by subtyping * Subgrouping: Accommodating individuals who deviate from one’s stereotype by farming a new stereotype about this subset of the group. * Example * Hold a stereotype that women are bad at STEM and attend a meeting where you meet all these really successful women of STEM so you say all the people at the meeting are the subgroup and are the gifted ones but still maintain the belief that on average women can’t be good at science, technology, engineering, or math * What is a stereotype threat? * Stereotype threat: disruptive concern when facing negative stereotype that one will be evaluated based on negative stereotype * People who experience a lot of stereotypes often become very self conscious because they feel they are constantly assessed * If you’re overly concerned about how you are evaluated, it does impact performance * Being placed in a situation where other people expect you to do poorly will effect your performance and you will do poorly * Spencer, Steele, Quinn (1999) * Had men and women come in and they men and women already had similar math efficacy * Group 1 participants were told there was no difference between men and women and when given a math test, they found no significant difference between men’s scores and women’s scores. * Group 2 participants were told there was a significant difference between men and women and when given a math test, they found the women performed not as well. * Stone & Colleagues (1999) * The way you present something to somebody can also affect their performances, specifically looked at athleticism * African American participants when they were told the task is sporting intelligence they didn’t do as well as the white participant * When framed as an assessment of natural athletic ability, the white participants did not perform as well * Stereotype threat * How does stereotype undermine performance? * Schamder et al., 2008 * Wanted to look at why it affects performance and had MRI scans that showed: * Stress * Self monitoring * Suppressing unwanted thoughts and emotions * Negative stereotypes can impair performance, positive stereotypes can facilitate performance * Do stereotypes bias judgements for individuals? * Yes, but people often evaluate individuals more positively than the groups they compose * Strong stereotypes matter * Stereotypes bias interpretations * Affect how events are interpreted * We evaluate people more extremely when their behavior violates our stereotypes Chapter 10: Aggression * Define aggression and describe its different forms. * Aggression * Physical or verbal behavior intended to cause harm * Physical Aggression * Hurting somebody else's' body, spitting on someone * Social Aggression * Hurting someone’s feelings or threatening their relationships * Also called relational aggression * Includes cyberbullying and some forms of in person bullying * Serious consequences * Relational aggression * Social exclusion * Gossiping * Anything that hurts well being and sense of self * Has serious consequences when one is a victim of bullying * Higher rates of depression, anxiety, suicide * Just as damaging as physical aggression * Duhue et al.,2008 * Investigated cyberbullying as a form of relational aggression. * Found that victims of cyberbullying experience psychological harm comparable to or even worse than physical bullying. * Emphasized how online anonymity and permanence can intensify the effects, making the aggression more pervasive and harder to escape. * Linked cyberbullying to increased depression, anxiety, and suicidal ideation, especially in adolescents. * Hostile Aggression**Mentioned in lecture to know for exam * Aggression that springs from anger; its goal is to injure * Hitting, slapping someone * Instrumental Aggression**Mentioned in lecture to know for exam * Aggression that is a means to some other end * When aggressive behavior is there but the goal is some other reward or outcome * Terrorist acts * Drop bombs, but the reason may not be to kill innocent, it could be to stop troops from expanding, encourage to leave country * Football * Defensive lineman’s job is to stop blocker, not the goal to hurt someone but someone may get hurt * Dentist * Filling a cavity and it hurts, wouldn’t call the dentist aggressive but the side effect of event * Wars * What are some biological theories of aggression? Explain neural influences, genetic influences and biochemical influences. * In analyzing the causes of aggression, social psychologists have focused on three big ideas * Biological influences * Aggression as a biological phenomenon * Biological Theory of Aggression * Aggression is innate, in you, and inevitable * Instinct theory and evolutionary psychology * Sigmund Freud * Death Instinct (thanatos) * Konrad Lorenz * Aggression is adaptive * Instinctive behavior: an innate, unlearned behavior pattern exhibited by all members of a species * Instinctive aggression supposedly builds up until it explodes or is released * Instinct Theory and Evolutionary Psychology * Fails to account for various levels of aggression between people and cultures * Although aggression is biologically influenced it does not qualify as an instinctive behavior * Aggression is, however, sometimes rooted in basic evolutionary impulses * Men gave found aggression adaptive * Purposeful aggression improved odds of survival and reproduction * John Archer (2006) and Francis McAndrew (2009) * Men may become more aggressive when their social status is challenged * Charles Barkley * Highest during adolescence and early adulthood * Neural influences * Complex behavior * No one spot in the brain controls it * Adrian Raine & Colleagues (1998, 2000, 2005, 2008) * Abnormal brains can contribute to abnormally aggressive behavior * Prefrontal cortex * 15% smaller * 14% less active * Situational factors can also play a role * Sleep deprivation reduces activity in the prefrontal cortex * Are of the brain responsible for self-control * In aggressive prove individuals, poor sleep can lead to violent and aggressive behavior * Genetic influences * Heredity influences the neura system’s sensitivity to aggressive cues * Temperament * Observed in infancy, genetically based * Temperament Types * Easy * Slow to warm up * Difficult * Interrelated Dimensions * Negative emotionality * Levels of irritability, inflexible, intense reactions * Self-regulation * Persistence, stick to tas, focus, emotional control * approach/withdrawal * Some kids need to warm up or they jump in feet first * MAOA-L Gene: Warrior or violence gene * Denson et al 2009, Eisenberger et al, 2007 * Caspi & Colleagues, 2002, Moffitt & Colleagues, 2003 * Nature and nurture interact * Genes and childhood maltreatment * Biochemical Influences * Alcohol * Testosterone * James Dabbs (2002) * Small molecule with large effects * Poor diet * Gesch et. al., 2002 * Solnick & Hemenway, 2012 * Biology and behavior interact * How is aggression a response to frustration? Describe frustration-aggression theory. * Frustration * Blocking of goal-directed behavior * Frustration Aggression Theory * Dollard (1939) * Theory that frustration triggers a readiness to aggress * Displacement * New target is safer or more socially acceptable target * Road Rage * Leonad Berkowitz (1978,1989) * Original theory overstated the frustration-aggression connection * Frustration produces anger, a emotional readiness to aggress * Aggressive cues are stimuli in the environment that can trigger or amplify aggressive behavior * Especially when already frustrated or emotionally primed * Simplified synopsis of Leonard Berkowitz’s Revised Frustration-Aggression Theory * Unjustified frustration → Anger + Aggression cues → Aggression * What is displacement and relative deprivation? * Displacement * New target is safer or more socially acceptable target * Road Rage * Relative Deprivation * Frustration arises from the gap between expectations and attainments * Perception that one is less well off than others with whom one compares oneself * Explains why happiness tends to be lower and crime rates higher in communities and nations with large income inequality * What are some examples of rewards individuals experience through aggressive behavior? * Aggression is a learned social behavior * Aggression often garners rewards * Through experience and by observing others, we learn that aggression often pays * Bullying * Bullies tend to gain power * Hockey * Gain approval for aggression in sports * How is social learning theory related to aggression? Describe the Bobo Doll experiment. * Observational Learning * Albert Bandura (1961) * We learn social behavior by observing and imitating and by being rewarded and punished * Bobo Doll Experiment * Social Learning Theory * Everyday life exposes us to aggressie models * Family * Culture * Social environment * “Macho” behavior * Gangs * Social Learning Theory * Bandura contended that * Aggressive acts are motivated by a variety of aversive experiences- frustration, pain, and insults * Action depends on anticipated consequences Aversive Experiences → Emotional arousal→ Dependency Achievement Withdrawal and resignation Bodily symptoms Self-anesthetization with drugs or alcohol Constructive problem solving Rewards and costs → Anticipated Consequences → * Specific influences on aggression include: * Aversive experiences * Arousal * Aggression cues * Media influences * Group influences * What are four aversive incidents which can act as a recipe for aggression? Explain each one. * Physical Pain (1) * Nathan Azrin (1967 * Berkowitz (1983, 1989, 1998) * Psychological Pain (2) * Heat (3) * Griffitt, (1970), Griffitt & Veitch (1971) * Triggers retaliation in response to an attack * Attacks (4) * Includes insults * Intentional attacks breed retaliatory attacks * How does arousal affect aggression? * Stanley Schachter & Jerome Singer (1962) * A state of arousal can be interpreted in different ways depending on the context * Depend on how the person interprets and labels the arousal * Arousal fuels emotions * How do aggression cues influence aggressive behavior? * Violence is more likely when aggressive cues release pent up anger * Guns prime hostile thoughts and punitive judgements * Berkowitz (1968,1981, 1955) * “Weapon Effect” * Benjamin et.al., (2018) * Firearms 79% * Knives 7% * Hands & feet 4% * Other weapons 10% * What are some ways pornography influences sexual violence? * Distorted perceptions of sexual reality * Studies confirm that exposure to pornoraphy increases acceptance of the rape myth * Mullin & Linz (1955) * Distorts one’s perception of how women actually respond to sexual coercion * Increases men’s aggression towards men * Aggression against women * Studies suggest that the exposure to violent pornography increases punitive behavior toward women * Donnerstein (1980) * Does TV viewing influence aggression? Explain why or why not? * Children today are exposed to many hours of television which commonly features physical violence and social aggression * Studies strive to discover whether television affects viewers’ behavior and viewers’ thinking * One technique correlates school children’s TV watching with their aggressiveness * Results → the more violent the content, the more aggressive the child – extends to school aggression * Further studies show that while violent media exposure does not cause aggression, it is one of the several risk factors * Gentile & Bushman (2012) * In many ways, the internet allows an even greater variety of violent options than television * It allows people to create and distribute violent media themselves * Among U.S. youth, those who frequently visit violent websites are more likely to report engaging in violent behavior * Books featuring aggression and violence likewise appear to influence likelihood of behaving aggressively * Why does media viewing affect behavior? * The arousal that it produces * Viewing violence disinhibits * Media portrayals evoke imitation * Prosocial behavior * How does television influence thinking? * Desensitization * Emotional response to extinguishes * Emotional numbing * Bushman & Anderson, (2009) * Altered perceptions * George Gerber (1979,1994) * Media portrayals shape perceptions of reality * Cognitive Priming * Bushman (1998) * Media portrayals prime thinking * What effect do violent video games have on kids? * On average, playing video games does increase aggressive behaviors, thoughts and feelings outside the game * 2021 Meta Analysis * Groves et al., 2021 * 2015 APA Task Force * Reviewed 300 studies from 2005 and 2013 * Evidence linking violent video game aggression * Recommended the video-game industry include violence in its game rating system * Playing violent video games has an array of effect * Gentile & Anderson (2003,2008) * Increases aggressive behaviors * Increases aggressive feelings * Habituation in the brain * Greater likelihood of carrying a weapon * Decreases self-control and increases antisocial behavior * Decreases helping others and empathy for others * More violent the games the bigger effects * Greater realism also produced more aggressive feelings than less realistic game * How do group influences affect aggressive behavior? * Groups can amplify aggressive reactions partly by diffusing responsibility * Gaebelein & Mander (1978) * Increases with distance and number * Brian Mullen (1986) * Through social contagion, groups magnify and amplify aggressive tendencies * Young gangs, soccer fans, urban rioters, bull * What is catharsis and how does it relate to aggression? * Research results challenge the catharsis hypothesis * Catharsis Hypothesis: The idea that violent games allow people to safely express their aggressive tendencies and “get their anger out” * Unfortunately, this idea is one of the main draws of violent video games for angry people * Just as violent games promote aggression, prosocial games promote prosocial behaviors * How can aggression be reduced through a social learning approach? * Answer here Chapter 11: Intimacy-Liking and Loving Others Chapter 11: Intimacy – Liking and Loving Others Attraction and Intimacy: Liking and Loving Others · Need to belong · Mutual attachments enabled group survival · Social attachments enable survival · Social animals: · Need to belong; A motivation to bond with others in relationships that provide ongoing, positive interactions · We purse belonging when we don’t have it and seek it less when our needs are fulfilled · When we do belong, we tend to be happier and healthier Ostracism; Act of excluding or ignoring often worse than bullying · Can lead people to lash out at the very people whose acceptance they desire · Emotional distress, loneliness, depressed mood, anxiety, low self-esteem, physical symptoms, and a desire for reconciliation · People show deficits in brain mechanisms that inhibit unwanted behavior * People experience heightened activity in a brain cortex associated with physical pain * Increases aggression, depressed mood * Social isolation is one of the primary risk factors for suicide * Ostracism is real pain, love is a natural pain killer * mimicry Cyberostracism; Feeling ignored on social media 1.How does proximity nurture liking and loving? Proximity (geographical nearness) is a powerful predictor of whether two people are friends. · Functional distance · Interaction availability · Anticipation of interaction; Anticipation of interaction boosts liking. · Anticipatory interaction is adaptive, increases the chances of forming a rewarding relationship · Proximity leads to liking not only because it enables interaction and anticipatory liking but also because familiarity breeds fondness · Mere exposure: Tendency for novel stimuli to be liked more or rated more positively after repeated exposure. · Exposure without awareness leads to liking · Attitudes toward social group can be changed by mere exposure · “Hardwired” phenomenon 2. How does physical attractiveness nurture liking and loving? (Describe matching phenomenon and attractiveness stereotype) * Looks are a predictor of how often one dates; * Physical Attractiveness: Attractiveness is a major factor in first impressions. * Overall importance of physical attractiveness in dating is fairly large * The matching phenomenon: Tendency for men and women to choose partners who are a “good match” in attractiveness and other traits. Physical- Attractiveness stereotype: Presumption that physically attractive people possess other socially desirable traits as well. What is beautiful is good. * We assume beautiful people are happier, sexually warmer, more outgoing, successful, and intelligent. * Is the “beautiful is good” stereotype accurate? ; Attractive people are valued and favored, and so many develop more social self-confidence 3. What are some things that all people find attractive (even within and among different cultures)? How does evolution play a role in attraction? * Attractiveness varies by culture and era, but: * Some adult physical features (youthful, healthy, symmetrical faces) are universally attractive. * Evolution and attraction: * Assumption that beauty signals biologically important information (health, youth, fertility) * Evolutionary psychologists argue we are biologically predisposed to prefer traits associated with reproductive success * Men prefer signs of fertility in women (e.g., youthful faces, waist-to-hip ratio). * Women prefer traits that signify resources and protection. Who’s is attractive? Perfect average & Symmetry: To be really attractive is, ironically, to be perfectly average Researchers have digitized multiple faces and averaged them using a computer. Find the composite faces more appealing than almost all the actual faces. Symmetry; Computer-averaged faces and bodies also tend to be perfectly symmetrical — another characteristic of strikingly attractive people · Attraction is not hardwired · Social comparison · Contrast effect: When you’re feeling blue, another’s bubbly personality can be aggravating. The contrast effect that makes average people feel homely in the company of beautiful people also makes sad people more conscious of their misery in the company of cheerful people. 4.Explain how similarity versus complementarity influence liking and loving. * Similarity vs. Complementarity: * Similarity breeds content. * We like those who are similar to us in attitudes, beliefs, interests. * Friends, engaged couples, and spouses are far more likely than randomly paired people to share common attitudes, beliefs, values, and personality traits). Furthermore, the greater the similarity between husband and wife, the happier they are and the less likely they are to divorce * Dissimilarity breeds dislike. * Birds of a feather do flock together * Complementarity: The popularly supposed tendency, in a relationship between two people, for each to complete what is missing in the other * In reality, similarity tends to be more predictive of liking. * as a general rule, opposites do not attract. 5.Why do we like those who like us? * We like people who like us, especially when self-image is low. * A person’s liking of another can cause the other to return the appreciation; We are sensitive to the slightest hint of criticism * Attribution: If flattery seems manipulative, we may lose respect. * Constant approval may lose value—gains in esteem (e.g., someone who initially disliked you and then grew to like you) are especially rewarding. * Integration: The use of strategies, such as flattery, by which people seek to gain another’s favor. 6.What is the reward theory for attraction? * Reward theory of attraction: We like those whose behavior is rewarding to us or whom we associate with rewarding events. * If a relationship gives more rewards than costs, we like it. * We are more likely to continue relationships that are rewarding. What is love? · Loving is more complex than liking and thus more difficult to measure Influences of liking also influence long-term, close relationships; nevertheless, long-term loving is not merely an intensification of initial liking · Psychologist Robert Sternberg views love as consisting of three components: passion, intimacy, and commitment 7.Describe the components of passionate love and compassionate love. Passionate love: A state of intense long for union with another, being “in love” * Emotional, exciting, intense. * Expressed physically * Passionate love = lust + Attachment * Includes fascination, exclusiveness, intense longing. * two-factor theory of emotion: Arousal × label = emotion; Suggests that in a romantic context, arousal from any source, even painful experiences, can be steered into passion * * Companionate love: Affection we feel for those with whom our lives are deeply intertwined. * Occurs after passionate love fades * Passion-facilitating hormones (testosterone, dopamine, adrenaline) fade, while the hormone oxytocin supports attachment and trust * Deep, affectionate attachment. * Develops over time as attachment grows and passion fades. 8.What enables close relationships? * Attachment * Our need to belong is adaptive; Parents and children, Friends, Spouses or lovers Attachment; Positive parent-child attachment crucial to the development of a healthy personality • Attachment style in early childhood indicative of adult functioning • Compared attachment and love in various close relationships • Common elements: Mutual understanding, giving and receiving support, valuing and enjoying being with the loved one * Equity: A condition in which the outcomes people receive from a relationship are proportional to what they contribute to it. Long-term equity: refers to giving to a loved one’s needs without expecting anything in return · As people observe their partners being self-giving, their sense of trust grows · Perceived equity and satisfaction; Perceived inequity and marital distress * Self-disclosure: Revealing intimate aspects of oneself to others; Increases liking and intimacy. * Disclosure reciprocity: Tendency for one person’s intimacy or self- disclosure to match that of a conversational partner * We reveal more to those who have been open with us. 9.What are the different attachment styles? Secure attachment: Rooted in trust and marked by intimacy.( Securely attached adults find it easy to get close to others and don’t fret about getting too dependent or being abandoned. ) Avoidant attachment: Discomfort over, or resistance to, being close to others.( avoidant adults tend to be less invested in relationships and more likely to leave them. More likely to cheat) Anxious attachment: Clinginess, fear of abandonment. (. As adults, insecure individuals are less trusting, more fearful of a partner’s becoming interested in someone else, and therefore more possessive and jealous. They may break up repeatedly with the same person ) 10.Explain the detachment process when ending a relationship. Detaching Process: Severing bonds produces a predictable sequence: agitated preoccupation with the lost partner, deep sadness, and the beginnings of emotional detachment a letting go of the old while focusing on something new, and a renewed sense of self · Detaching is a process, not a one-time event · Among dating couples, the closer and longer the relationship, the more painful the breakup · Among married couples, breakup has additional costs How do relationships end? - Comparing their unsatisfying relationship with the support and affection they imagine are available elsewhere, many relationships end - Each year, the United States records one divorce for every three marriages Divorce - Individualistic cultures have more divorce than do communal cultures; Individualists expect more passion and personal fulfillment in a marriage, which puts greater pressure on a relationship -Married couples with larger fluctuations in marital satisfaction over the years were more likely to divorce -Risk of divorce is higher for some personalities and depends on who marries whom Chapter 12: Helping 1. Define social exchange theory - Social Exchange Theory: The theory that human interactions are transactions that aim to maximize one’s rewards and minimize one’s costs. 2.Explain internal versus external rewards of helping. - External rewards: egoism; We give to get. - Internal rewards: ;reduction of distressed feelings; reduction of guilt; helping boosts self-worth. -Internal rewards; Feel good, do good -Positive mood can dramatically boost helping 3.What is the “reciprocity norm”? - Reciprocity Norm: Universal moral code; An expectation that people will help, not hurt, those who have helped them. - Helps define the social capital 4.Define social capital. - Social capital: supportive connections, information flow, trust, and cooperative actions—that keep a community healthy. 5.What is the social-responsibility norm? - Social-responsibility norm: An expectation that people will help those needing help. Closely tied to attributions. - Attributions: If we attribute the need to uncontrollable circumstances, we help. - If attributed to the person’s choice or fault, we are less likely to help. 6.What are gender differences in giving/receiving help? - Gender and Receiving Help: - Women offer help equally to males and females. - Men offer more help when the persons in need are females.(especially if attractive) - Gender and Giving Help: - Women seek more help. - Independence vs interdependence? - More likely to describe themselves as helpful. 7.What are some evolutionary reasons for helping others? - Kin selection: Genetic relatedness predicts helping. We help those who share our genes: Idea that evolution has selected altruism toward one’s close relatives to enhance the survival of mutually shared genes - Direct Reciprocity: We help with the expectation of return. - Indirect reciprocity: I’ll scratch your back, you scratch someone’s, and someone will scratch mine - Group selection: Groups in competition are mutually supportive; Groups that help each other survive are more likely to outlast those that don’t. Reciprocity · Predicted by genetic self-interest · Works best in small, isolated groups Altruism; A motive to increase another’s welfare without conscious regard for one’s self-interest - Selfishness in reverse - parable “The Good Samaritan” 8.What is genuine altruism? -Genuine altruism; Our willingness to help is influenced by self-serving and selfless considerations -Guilt: People will do whatever can be done to expunge guilt, relieve their bad feelings, and restore their self-image. - Feel-good/do-good effect: Happy people are helpful people. 9.What is the bystander effect? - Bystander effect: The finding that a person is less likely to provide help when there are other bystanders. 10.Explain how the number and behavior of other bystanders influence helping. When someone is hurt or needs help: Number of Bystanders; We are less likely to notice a situation if we are not alone 1. Notice the incident. 2. Interpret as emergency. 3. Assume responsibility. 11.Do people help when they see others help? - Yes, observing helpful behavior increases helping. 12.How does time pressure influence helping behaviors? - When under time pressure, people are less likely to help. 13.Do perceptions of similarity influence helping behaviors? - Yes, similarity breeds liking and greater helping. Similarity bias; Likeness breeds liking and liking elicits helping; We tend to help those whom we perceive as being similar to us. 14.What are the personality traits of those who are most likely to help others? - Network of traits: - Positive emotionality - Empathy - Self-efficacy - Gender: men more likely to help in dangerous situations; women more likely in safer situations Who will help: Religious faith; Predicts long-term altruism, as reflected in volunteerism and charitable contributions - Surveys confirm the correlation between faith engagement and volunteering 15.What can be done to increase helping behavior? - Reduce ambiguity, increase responsibility: - Enable people to interpret as an emergency and assume responsibility. - Guilt and concern for self-image can increase helping. Socializing Altruism; teaching moral inclusion 16.What are some ways individuals can reduce ambiguity and increase responsibility when seeking help? - Making a direct appeal. - Stating clearly that it’s an emergency. - Identifying one person specifically to take action. 17.What is door-in-the-face technique and how does it relate to helping behaviors? - Door-in-the-face technique: After someone first turns down a large request, the requester counteroffers with a more reasonable request. - Related to reciprocity norm and obligation to comply with a request. 18.What is moral exclusion and inclusion? - Moral exclusion: The perception that certain individuals or groups are outside the boundary within which one applies moral values and fairness. - Moral inclusion: The perception of others as within one's circle of moral concern. Modeling altruism: Real-life modeling/Media modeling -Real life; we see or read about someone helping, we become more likely to offer assistance. - Media modeling; media also effectively model prosocial behavior, partly by increasing empathy. 19.What is the overjustification effect? - Over justification effect: The result of bribing people to do what they already like doing; they may then see their actions as externally controlled rather than intrinsically appealing.

Chapter 10: Aggression
* Define aggression and describe its different forms.
   * Aggression
      * Physical or verbal behavior intended to cause harm
   * Physical Aggression
      * Hurting somebody else's' body, spitting on someone
   * Social Aggression
      * Hurting someone’s feelings or threatening their relationships
         * Also called relational aggression
         * Includes cyberbullying and some forms of in person bullying
         * Serious consequences
         * Relational aggression
         * Social exclusion
         * Gossiping
         * Anything that hurts well being and sense of self
      * Has serious consequences when one is a victim of bullying
         * Higher rates of depression, anxiety, suicide
      * Just as damaging as physical aggression
      * Duhue et al.,2008
         * Investigated cyberbullying as a form of relational aggression.
         * Found that victims of cyberbullying experience psychological harm comparable to or even worse than physical bullying.
         * Emphasized how online anonymity and permanence can intensify the effects, making the aggression more pervasive and harder to escape.
         * Linked cyberbullying to increased depression, anxiety, and suicidal ideation, especially in adolescents.
   * Hostile Aggression**Mentioned in lecture to know for exam
      * Aggression that springs from anger; its goal is to injure
      * Hitting, slapping someone
   * Instrumental Aggression**Mentioned in lecture to know for exam
      * Aggression that is a means to some other end
      * When aggressive behavior is there but the goal is some other reward or outcome
      * Terrorist acts
         * Drop bombs, but the reason may not be to kill innocent, it could be to stop troops from expanding, encourage to leave country
      * Football
         * Defensive lineman’s job is to stop blocker, not the goal to hurt someone but someone may get hurt
      * Dentist
         * Filling a cavity and it hurts, wouldn’t call the dentist aggressive but the side effect of event
      * Wars
* What are some biological theories of aggression? Explain neural influences, genetic influences and biochemical influences.
   * In analyzing the causes of aggression, social psychologists have focused on three big ideas
   * Biological influences
      * Aggression as a biological phenomenon
      * Biological Theory of Aggression
         * Aggression is innate, in you, and inevitable
         * Instinct theory and evolutionary psychology
            * Sigmund Freud
               * Death Instinct (thanatos)
            * Konrad Lorenz
               * Aggression is adaptive
            * Instinctive behavior: an innate, unlearned behavior pattern exhibited by all members of a species
            * Instinctive aggression supposedly builds up until it explodes or is released
      * Instinct Theory and Evolutionary Psychology
         * Fails to account for various levels of aggression between people and cultures
         * Although aggression is biologically influenced it does not qualify as an instinctive behavior
            * Aggression is, however, sometimes rooted in basic evolutionary impulses
         * Men gave found aggression adaptive
         * Purposeful aggression improved odds of survival and reproduction
            * John Archer (2006) and Francis McAndrew (2009)
         * Men may become more aggressive when their social status is challenged
            * Charles Barkley
            * Highest during adolescence and early adulthood
   * Neural influences
      * Complex behavior
      * No one spot in the brain controls it
      * Adrian Raine & Colleagues (1998, 2000, 2005, 2008)
         * Abnormal brains can contribute to abnormally aggressive behavior
            * Prefrontal cortex
               * 15% smaller
               * 14% less active
      * Situational factors can also play a role
      * Sleep deprivation reduces activity in the prefrontal cortex
         * Are of the brain responsible for self-control
      * In aggressive prove individuals, poor sleep can lead to violent and aggressive behavior
   * Genetic influences
      * Heredity influences the neura system’s sensitivity to aggressive cues
      * Temperament
         * Observed in infancy, genetically based
         * Temperament Types
            * Easy
            * Slow to warm up
            * Difficult
         * Interrelated Dimensions
            * Negative emotionality
               * Levels of irritability, inflexible, intense reactions
            * Self-regulation
               * Persistence, stick to tas, focus, emotional control
            * approach/withdrawal
               * Some kids need to warm up or they jump in feet first
      * MAOA-L Gene: Warrior or violence gene
         * Denson et al 2009, Eisenberger et al, 2007
      * Caspi & Colleagues, 2002, Moffitt & Colleagues, 2003
         * Nature and nurture interact
         * Genes and childhood maltreatment
   * Biochemical Influences
      * Alcohol
      * Testosterone
         * James Dabbs (2002)
         * Small molecule with large effects
      * Poor diet
         * Gesch et. al., 2002
         * Solnick & Hemenway, 2012
      * Biology and behavior interact
* How is aggression a response to frustration? Describe frustration-aggression theory.
   * Frustration
      * Blocking of goal-directed behavior
   * Frustration Aggression Theory
      * Dollard (1939)
      * Theory that frustration triggers a readiness to aggress
         * Displacement
            * New target is safer or more socially acceptable target
            * Road Rage
      * Leonad Berkowitz (1978,1989)
      * Original theory overstated the frustration-aggression connection
      * Frustration produces anger, a emotional readiness to aggress
      * Aggressive cues are stimuli in the environment that can trigger or amplify aggressive behavior
         * Especially when already frustrated or emotionally primed
      * Simplified synopsis of Leonard Berkowitz’s Revised Frustration-Aggression Theory
         * Unjustified frustration → Anger + Aggression cues → Aggression
* What is displacement and relative deprivation?
   * Displacement
      * New target is safer or more socially acceptable target
      * Road Rage
   * Relative Deprivation
      * Frustration arises from the gap between expectations and attainments
      * Perception that one is less well off than others with whom one compares oneself
         * Explains why happiness tends to be lower and crime rates higher in communities  and nations with large income inequality
* What are some examples of rewards individuals experience through aggressive behavior?
   * Aggression is a learned social behavior
      * Aggression often garners rewards
         * Through experience and by observing others, we learn that aggression often pays
            * Bullying
               * Bullies tend to gain power
            * Hockey
               * Gain approval for aggression in sports
* How is social learning theory related to aggression? Describe the Bobo Doll experiment.
   * Observational Learning
   * Albert Bandura (1961) 
      * We learn social behavior by observing and imitating and by being rewarded and punished
   * Bobo Doll Experiment
   * Social Learning Theory
   * Everyday life exposes us to aggressie models
      * Family
      * Culture
         * Social environment
         * “Macho” behavior
         * Gangs
   * Social Learning Theory
   * Bandura contended that
      * Aggressive acts are motivated by a variety of aversive experiences- frustration, pain, and insults
      * Action depends on anticipated consequences
Aversive Experiences →
	Emotional arousal→
	Dependency
Achievement
Withdrawal and resignation
Bodily symptoms
Self-anesthetization with drugs or alcohol
Constructive problem solving

Rewards and costs →
	Anticipated Consequences →
	   * Specific influences on aggression include:
      * Aversive experiences
      * Arousal
      * Aggression cues
      * Media influences
      * Group influences
* What are four aversive incidents which can act as a recipe for aggression? Explain each one.
   * Physical Pain (1)
      * Nathan Azrin (1967
      * Berkowitz (1983, 1989, 1998)
   * Psychological Pain (2)
   * Heat (3)
      * Griffitt, (1970), Griffitt & Veitch (1971)
      * Triggers retaliation in response to an attack
   * Attacks (4)
      * Includes insults
      * Intentional attacks breed retaliatory attacks
* How does arousal affect aggression?
   * Stanley Schachter & Jerome Singer (1962)
   * A state of arousal can be interpreted in different ways depending on the context
      * Depend on how the person interprets and labels the arousal
      * Arousal fuels emotions
* How do aggression cues influence aggressive behavior?
   * Violence is more likely when aggressive cues release pent up anger
   * Guns prime hostile thoughts and punitive judgements
      * Berkowitz (1968,1981, 1955)
   * “Weapon Effect”
      * Benjamin et.al., (2018)
         * Firearms 79%
         * Knives 7%
         * Hands & feet 4%
         * Other weapons 10%
* What are some ways pornography influences sexual violence?
   * Distorted perceptions of sexual reality
      * Studies confirm that exposure to pornoraphy increases acceptance of the rape myth 
         * Mullin & Linz (1955)
      * Distorts one’s perception of how women actually respond to sexual coercion
      * Increases men’s aggression towards men
   * Aggression against women
      * Studies suggest that the exposure to violent pornography increases punitive behavior toward women
      * Donnerstein (1980)
* Does TV viewing influence aggression? Explain why or why not?
   * Children today are exposed to many hours of television which commonly features physical violence and social aggression
   * Studies strive to discover whether television affects viewers’ behavior and viewers’ thinking
      * One technique correlates school children’s TV watching with their aggressiveness
         * Results → the more violent the content, the more aggressive the child – extends to school aggression
         * Further studies show that while violent media exposure does not cause aggression, it is one of the several risk factors
            * Gentile & Bushman (2012)
   * In many ways, the internet allows an even greater variety of violent options than television
      * It allows people to create and distribute violent media themselves
      * Among U.S. youth, those who frequently visit violent websites are more likely to report engaging in violent behavior
      * Books featuring aggression and violence likewise appear to influence likelihood of behaving aggressively
   * Why does media viewing affect behavior?
      * The arousal that it produces
      * Viewing violence disinhibits
      * Media portrayals evoke imitation
         * Prosocial behavior
* How does television influence thinking?
   * Desensitization
      * Emotional response to extinguishes
      * Emotional numbing
      * Bushman & Anderson, (2009)
   * Altered perceptions
      * George Gerber (1979,1994)
      * Media portrayals shape perceptions of reality
   * Cognitive Priming
      * Bushman (1998)
      * Media portrayals prime thinking
* What effect do violent video games have on kids?
   * On average, playing video games does increase aggressive behaviors, thoughts and feelings outside the game
   * 2021 Meta Analysis
      * Groves et al., 2021
   * 2015 APA Task Force
      * Reviewed 300 studies from 2005 and 2013
      * Evidence linking violent video game aggression 
         * Recommended the video-game industry include violence in its game rating system
   * Playing violent video games has an array of effect
      * Gentile & Anderson (2003,2008)
   * Increases aggressive behaviors 
   * Increases aggressive feelings
   * Habituation in the brain
   * Greater likelihood of carrying a weapon
   * Decreases self-control and increases antisocial behavior
   * Decreases helping others and empathy for others
   * More violent the games the bigger effects
      * Greater realism also produced more aggressive feelings than less realistic game
* How do group influences affect aggressive behavior?
   * Groups can amplify aggressive reactions partly by diffusing responsibility
      * Gaebelein & Mander (1978)
      * Increases with distance and number
         * Brian Mullen (1986)
      * Through social contagion, groups magnify and amplify aggressive tendencies
         * Young gangs, soccer fans, urban rioters, bull
* What is catharsis and how does it relate to aggression?
   * Research results challenge the catharsis hypothesis
      * Catharsis Hypothesis: The idea that violent games allow people to safely express their aggressive tendencies and “get their anger out”
         * Unfortunately, this idea is one of the main draws of violent video games for angry people
      * Just as violent games promote aggression, prosocial games promote prosocial behaviors
* How can aggression be reduced through a social learning approach?
   * Answer here

Chapter 11: Intimacy-Liking and Loving Others
Chapter 11: Intimacy – Liking and Loving Others
Attraction and Intimacy: Liking and Loving Others
·          Need to belong
·          Mutual attachments enabled group survival
·          Social attachments enable survival
·          Social animals:
·          Need to belong; A motivation to bond with others in relationships that provide ongoing, positive interactions  
·          We purse belonging when we don’t have it and seek it less when our needs are fulfilled  
·           When we do belong, we tend to be happier and healthier  
 
 
Ostracism; Act of excluding or ignoring often worse than bullying
·          Can lead people to lash out at the very people whose acceptance they desire
·          Emotional distress, loneliness, depressed mood, anxiety, low self-esteem, physical symptoms, and a desire for reconciliation
·           People show deficits in brain mechanisms that inhibit unwanted behavior
* People experience heightened activity in a brain cortex associated with physical pain
* Increases aggression, depressed mood
* Social isolation is one of the primary risk factors for suicide
*  Ostracism is real pain, love is a natural pain killer
* mimicry
 
 
Cyberostracism; Feeling ignored on social media
 
1.How does proximity nurture liking and loving?
Proximity (geographical nearness) is a powerful predictor of whether two people are friends.
·          Functional distance
·          Interaction availability
·          Anticipation of interaction; Anticipation of interaction boosts liking.
·          Anticipatory interaction is adaptive, increases the chances of forming a rewarding relationship
·          Proximity leads to liking not only because it enables interaction and anticipatory liking but also because familiarity breeds fondness
·          Mere exposure: Tendency for novel stimuli to be liked more or rated more positively after repeated exposure.
·          Exposure without awareness leads to liking
·          Attitudes toward social group can be changed by mere exposure
·           “Hardwired” phenomenon
2. How does physical attractiveness nurture liking and loving?
(Describe matching phenomenon and attractiveness stereotype)
* Looks are a predictor of how often one dates;
* Physical Attractiveness: Attractiveness is a major factor in first impressions.
* Overall importance of physical attractiveness in dating is fairly large
* The matching phenomenon: Tendency for men and women to choose partners who are a “good match” in attractiveness and other traits.
Physical- Attractiveness stereotype: Presumption that physically attractive people possess other socially desirable traits as well. What is beautiful is good.
   * We assume beautiful people are happier, sexually warmer, more outgoing, successful, and intelligent.
   * Is the  “beautiful is good” stereotype accurate? ; Attractive people are valued and favored, and so many develop more social self-confidence
 
3. What are some things that all people find attractive (even within and among different cultures)? How does evolution play a role in attraction?
* Attractiveness varies by culture and era, but:
   * Some adult physical features (youthful, healthy, symmetrical faces) are universally attractive.
* Evolution and attraction:
   * Assumption that beauty signals biologically important information (health, youth, fertility)
   * Evolutionary psychologists argue we are biologically predisposed to prefer traits associated with reproductive success
   * Men prefer signs of fertility in women (e.g., youthful faces, waist-to-hip ratio).
   * Women prefer traits that signify resources and protection.
Who’s is attractive? Perfect average & Symmetry: To be really attractive is, ironically, to be perfectly average Researchers have digitized multiple faces and averaged them using a computer. Find the composite faces more appealing than almost all the actual faces.
Symmetry; Computer-averaged faces and bodies also tend to be perfectly symmetrical — another characteristic of strikingly attractive people
·          Attraction is not hardwired
·          Social comparison
·          Contrast effect: When you’re feeling blue, another’s bubbly personality can be aggravating. The contrast effect that makes average people feel homely in the company of beautiful people also makes sad people more conscious of their misery in the company of cheerful people.
 
 
4.Explain how similarity versus complementarity influence liking and loving.
* Similarity vs. Complementarity:
   * Similarity breeds content.
      * We like those who are similar to us in attitudes, beliefs, interests.
      * Friends, engaged couples, and spouses are far more likely than randomly paired people to share common attitudes, beliefs, values, and personality traits). Furthermore, the greater the similarity between husband and wife, the happier they are and the less likely they are to divorce
      * Dissimilarity breeds dislike.
      * Birds of a feather do flock together
   * Complementarity: The popularly supposed tendency, in a relationship between two people, for each to complete what is missing in the other
      * In reality, similarity tends to be more predictive of liking.
      * as a general rule, opposites do not attract.
5.Why do we like those who like us?
* We like people who like us, especially when self-image is low.
* A person’s liking of another can cause the other to return the appreciation; We are sensitive to the slightest hint of criticism
* Attribution: If flattery seems manipulative, we may lose respect.
* Constant approval may lose value—gains in esteem (e.g., someone who initially disliked you and then grew to like you) are especially rewarding.
* Integration: The use of strategies, such as flattery, by which people seek to gain another’s favor.
 
6.What is the reward theory for attraction?
* Reward theory of attraction: We like those whose behavior is rewarding to us or whom we associate with rewarding events.
   * If a relationship gives more rewards than costs, we like it.
   * We are more likely to continue relationships that are rewarding.
What is love?
·          Loving is more complex than liking and thus more difficult to measure Influences of liking also influence long-term, close relationships; nevertheless, long-term loving is not merely an intensification of initial liking
·          Psychologist Robert Sternberg views love as consisting of three components: passion, intimacy, and commitment
 
7.Describe the components of passionate love and compassionate love.
Passionate love: A state of intense long for union with another, being “in love”
   * Emotional, exciting, intense.
   * Expressed physically
   * Passionate love = lust + Attachment
   * Includes fascination, exclusiveness, intense longing.
   * two-factor theory of emotion: Arousal × label = emotion; Suggests that in a romantic context, arousal from any source, even painful experiences, can be steered into passion
   *  
* Companionate love: Affection we feel for those with whom our lives are deeply intertwined.
   * Occurs after passionate love fades  
   * Passion-facilitating hormones (testosterone, dopamine, adrenaline) fade, while the hormone oxytocin supports attachment and trust
   * Deep, affectionate attachment.
   * Develops over time as attachment grows and passion fades.
8.What enables close relationships?
* Attachment
* Our need to belong is adaptive; Parents and children, Friends, Spouses or lovers
Attachment; Positive parent-child attachment crucial to the development of a healthy personality
•               Attachment style in early childhood indicative of adult functioning  
•               Compared attachment and love in various close relationships  
•               Common elements: Mutual understanding, giving and receiving support, valuing and enjoying being with the loved one
 
* Equity: A condition in which the outcomes people receive from a relationship are proportional to what they contribute to it.
Long-term equity: refers to giving to a loved one’s needs without expecting anything in return
·           As people observe their partners being self-giving, their sense of trust grows
·           Perceived equity and satisfaction; Perceived inequity and marital distress
* Self-disclosure: Revealing intimate aspects of oneself to others; Increases liking and intimacy.
   * Disclosure reciprocity: Tendency for one person’s intimacy or self- disclosure to match that of a conversational partner
   * We reveal more to those who have been open with us.  
9.What are the different attachment styles?
Secure attachment: Rooted in trust and marked by intimacy.( Securely attached adults find it easy to get close to others and don’t fret about getting too dependent or being abandoned. )
Avoidant attachment: Discomfort over, or resistance to, being close to others.( avoidant adults tend to be less invested in relationships and more likely to leave them.  More likely to cheat)
Anxious attachment: Clinginess, fear of abandonment. (. As adults, insecure individuals are less trusting, more fearful of a partner’s becoming interested in someone else, and therefore more possessive and jealous. They may break up repeatedly with the same person )
 
10.Explain the detachment process when ending a relationship.
Detaching Process: Severing bonds produces a predictable sequence: agitated preoccupation with the lost partner, deep sadness, and the beginnings of emotional detachment a letting go of the old while focusing on something new, and a renewed sense of self
 
·           Detaching is a process, not a one-time event
·           Among dating couples, the closer and longer the relationship, the more painful the breakup
·           Among married couples, breakup has additional costs
How do relationships end?
- Comparing their unsatisfying relationship with the support and affection they imagine are available elsewhere, many relationships end
- Each year, the United States records one divorce for every three marriages
 Divorce
- Individualistic cultures have more divorce than do communal cultures; Individualists expect more passion and personal fulfillment in a marriage, which puts greater pressure on a relationship  
-Married couples with larger fluctuations in marital satisfaction over the years were more likely to divorce  
-Risk of divorce is higher for some personalities and depends on who marries whom

Chapter 12: Helping
1. Define social exchange theory
- Social Exchange Theory: The theory that human interactions are transactions that aim to maximize one’s rewards and minimize one’s costs.
 
2.Explain internal versus external rewards of helping.
- External rewards: egoism; We give to get.
- Internal rewards: ;reduction of distressed feelings; reduction of guilt;  helping boosts self-worth.
-Internal rewards; Feel good, do good
-Positive mood can dramatically boost helping
 
3.What is the “reciprocity norm”?
- Reciprocity Norm: Universal moral code; An expectation that people will help, not hurt, those who have helped them.
  - Helps define the social capital
 
 
4.Define social capital.
- Social capital: supportive connections, information flow, trust, and cooperative actions—that keep a community healthy.
 
 
5.What is the social-responsibility norm?
- Social-responsibility norm: An expectation that people will help those needing help. Closely tied to attributions.
  - Attributions: If we attribute the need to uncontrollable circumstances, we help.
  - If attributed to the person’s choice or fault, we are less likely to help.
 
6.What are gender differences in giving/receiving help?
- Gender and Receiving Help:
  - Women offer help equally to males and females.
  - Men offer more help when the persons in need are females.(especially if attractive)
- Gender and Giving Help:
  - Women seek more help.
-  Independence vs interdependence?
  - More likely to describe themselves as helpful.
 
7.What are some evolutionary reasons for helping others?
- Kin selection: Genetic relatedness predicts helping. We help those who share our genes: Idea that evolution has selected altruism toward one’s close relatives to enhance the survival of mutually shared genes
- Direct Reciprocity: We help with the expectation of return.
- Indirect reciprocity: I’ll scratch your back, you scratch someone’s, and someone will scratch mine
- Group selection: Groups in competition are mutually supportive;
Groups that help each other survive are more likely to outlast those that don’t.
 
Reciprocity
·          Predicted by genetic self-interest
·          Works best in small, isolated groups
 
 
Altruism; A motive to increase another’s welfare without conscious regard for one’s self-interest  
- Selfishness in reverse
- parable “The Good Samaritan”
 
 
 
8.What is genuine altruism?
-Genuine altruism; Our willingness to help is influenced by self-serving and selfless considerations
 -Guilt: People will do whatever can be done to expunge guilt, relieve their bad feelings, and restore their self-image.
- Feel-good/do-good effect: Happy people are helpful people.
 
9.What is the bystander effect?
- Bystander effect: The finding that a person is less likely to provide help when there are other bystanders.
 
10.Explain how the number and behavior of other bystanders influence helping.
When someone is hurt or needs help:
 
Number of Bystanders; We are less likely to notice a situation if we are not alone
 
  1. Notice the incident.
  2. Interpret as emergency.
  3. Assume responsibility.
 
11.Do people help when they see others help?
- Yes, observing helpful behavior increases helping.
 
12.How does time pressure influence helping behaviors?
- When under time pressure, people are less likely to help.
 
13.Do perceptions of similarity influence helping behaviors?
- Yes, similarity breeds liking and greater helping.
 
Similarity bias; Likeness breeds liking and liking elicits helping; We tend to help those whom we perceive as being similar to us.
 
14.What are the personality traits of those who are most likely to help others?
- Network of traits:
  - Positive emotionality
  - Empathy
  - Self-efficacy
  - Gender: men more likely to help in dangerous situations; women more likely in safer situations
 
Who will help: Religious faith; Predicts long-term altruism, as reflected in
volunteerism and charitable contributions
- Surveys confirm the correlation between faith engagement and volunteering
 
15.What can be done to increase helping behavior?
- Reduce ambiguity, increase responsibility:
  - Enable people to interpret as an emergency and assume responsibility.
  - Guilt and concern for self-image can increase helping.
 
Socializing Altruism; teaching moral inclusion
 
 
16.What are some ways individuals can reduce ambiguity and increase responsibility when seeking help?
- Making a direct appeal.
- Stating clearly that it’s an emergency.
- Identifying one person specifically to take action.
 
17.What is door-in-the-face technique and how does it relate to helping behaviors?
- Door-in-the-face technique: After someone first turns down a large request, the requester counteroffers with a more reasonable request.
  - Related to reciprocity norm and obligation to comply with a request.
 
18.What is moral exclusion and inclusion?
- Moral exclusion: The perception that certain individuals or groups are outside the boundary within which one applies moral values and fairness.
- Moral inclusion: The perception of others as within one's circle of moral concern.
 
Modeling altruism: Real-life modeling/Media modeling
-Real life; we see or read about someone helping, we become more likely to offer assistance.
- Media modeling; media also effectively model prosocial behavior, partly by increasing empathy.
 
 
19.What is the overjustification effect?
- Over justification effect: The result of bribing people to do what they already like doing; they may then see their actions as externally controlled rather than intrinsically appealing.

Transcript for:Understanding Prejudice, Aggression, Intimacy, and Helping

Transcript for:
Understanding Prejudice, Aggression, Intimacy, and Helping