hi everyone see who all is here i was logged in twice so it was getting an echo my other computer doesn't have a camera um so i had to switch over to this one i think okay we are recording all right and someone signed in we'll give everybody a few minutes to see who else signs in that's jasmine all right so jasmine um once i'll just wait a few more minutes for other people to connect i'll just give them a few more minutes and then we'll start um and as we go through this is being recorded right now you're muted so if as i'm going along if you have questions just unmute yourself and jump in or you can post that in the chat box what i'm going to be doing is just sharing my screen with you so that you can see we're going to go through just the course objectives for the chapters that are on this exam and we'll go a little bit over the activity one on the questions on that uh let's see that took me a few minutes to get in here are you um do you have access to um to your email right now i guess you do because well unless you signed into your d2l or got the invite through d2l i'm not i don't have access to my email and i don't know if it's a trident tech issue i'm on campus right now so maybe it's an on-campus issue so let me know if you guys are are getting this all right so if you have any questions as we go just go ahead and um okay oh good see you your email good all right so i'm going to share my screen um with the information with just the uh the chapter the chapter objectives that really should be your main study guide when you're studying for um for your exams uh those those bullet points on there our list of learning outcomes we use when we fill the exams you even with my videos even watching the videos you do have to read the book you know that's just one of the things with with college learning you're going to have to read the textbook even with all the other resources that are available so watch the videos watch those short videos by dr o but you go through the book especially take a look at make sure you understand the images the images the tables those the captions under them describe them there's a lot of detail that's covered in the book a lot of times there are words that are on the objectives that aren't necessarily in bold in the textbook so when you see something like that you might have to look a little harder for those words all right so let's uh take a look at these all right so for chapter one and again just unmute yourself and jump in if you have any questions because right now while i have this sharing i can't see the chat box so if you type in a question i won't see that right away so just unmute yourself and jump right in all right so the first um the first section 1.1 this is pretty interesting just kind of set the tone gave you some background and we come back to a lot of these same concepts so how and our ancestors improved food with microbes they used they used microbes bacteria and fungus for a lot of different processes from preserving foods to pickling foods fermentation or wine and beer so they could use they used microbes in in the process of preserving as well as enhancing the flavor uh the causes of sickness prior to the invention of the microscope prior to being able to see these microscopic invisible things um that could cause illness everybody got those it was pretty interesting the punishment from god for something bad bad air um but it was just just the air around you happened to be bad not necessarily that work for invisible white folks in it uh and then y'all did a great job in the discussion in the first week's discussion talking about the contributions of that leuven hook with the first microscope that had the ability to see down at that microscopic level at bacterial level things that couldn't be seen um even with other microscopes existed but really they were just magnifying glasses they weren't really at that level that that would have achieved and then louis pasteur who contributed all sorts of stuff pasteurization being the one that we credit him with by actually naming it after him but also he saw that microbes caused fermentation um and he contributed to vaccine development like rabies vaccine tracy if you have any questions just unmute yourself and jump in we're just going right through our learning objectives unmute yourself and ask stop me at any time if you need further clarification okay um uh but if but stay muted until you have a question just so we don't have a lot of background noises coming in thanks uh so um robert cope number these are cokes postulates we talk about those more a little bit later but he was the first one to associate or connect a specific microbe with a specific illness or disease i think we all went through classification pretty well uh we don't have to go you don't have to really memorize a whole lot of those lower levels for different organisms it's kind of what we we used those when we looked at our parasites and our fungus but the real levels you should make sure you know are the three domains we have the archaea that we're not going to spend a whole lot of time on but you should know how they differ from the other groups um so we have the archaea we have the bacteria which is where we spend most of our time when we talk about prokaryotes but our archaea and our bacteria have a lot of similarities they used to be in the same group until we got better technology better techniques that that allowed us to distinguish differentiate how they are different so those two domains are both single-celled organisms and then the third domain is the third domain that we have are our eukaryotes so prokaryotes include archaea and bacteria and then our eukaryotes are uh let's pop up window keeps coming up wait for that blue circle of depth so i can turn it off that blocking but our fourth group the eukaryotes those are cells like us we have a nucleus so that includes the four kingdoms of plant animal fungus and protist so be very careful because protist prokaryote we have a lot of these prefixes because the prefix means the same thing the prefix adds to the base word you really have to make sure you get the whole word not just the prefix so we have uh rid of that so prokaryotes are our single celled organisms that are simple that don't have a nucleus and our protists are a kingdom in the domain eukaryote they do have a nucleus so make sure we don't confuse those too much uh describe how i'm sorry for that pop-up window in there i can't get rid of it with that little blue thing in here and i can't move it i think this has something to do with our emails not working here on campus today all right so we're going to try to look around this scroll down a little bit here so they can scroll up so we can see what the next group are uh describe how microbes are named how to properly write the scientific name you all did that um in our discussion forum so remember italicized the whole underlining thing came because typewriters didn't have italics my brothers only had one bond that's the one you got and so that's where that underlining um process came for writing their names now we all have access to word processors so you can italicize even in our discussion forum so make sure you use those uh those tools to italicize in the discussion forum all right the types of microorganisms and acellular infectious agents so our microorganisms are our bacteria our prokaryotes are protists which are eukaryotes those are our single-celled parasites helmets which are eukaryotes also but these are our worms multicellular worms and then fungus and our acellular pathogens viruses and creons uh differences in similarities so we've talked a little bit about archaea and bacteria are two kingdoms these used to be the same because these are single-celled organisms they have similar structures looks similar under the microscope yeah i can't get rid of that sorry and um sorry so so they were classified together some of the distinct differences that have come about as we've gotten better molecular techniques is we can look at these and we see um we see that their ribosomes are different so archaea actually have ribosomes that are a little bit more similar to eukaryotes their cell wall is different the cell wall of archaea is pseudo peptidoglycan it's like peptidoglycan but not exactly so it's like pseudo and the bacteria have peptidoglycan so there the rk are really considered a transition maybe closer to or midway between the bacteria and the eukaryotes since they have a lot of similarities like their ribosome structure eukaryotes but they are still simple organisms so molecularly uh they are distinct one of the things with archaea is only recently identified that some of them are part of our microbiome that they do live on and in the human body none of them are known to cause disease so we don't really spend a whole lot of time looking at those different types of cellular viral microorganisms infections so that again was part of our discussion forum where we went through these and we go in this in a lot more detail so this is very general just these broad bacteria elements protists fungus and we go into that in more detail in chapter five and then provide an overview of different areas in the study of microbiology so we have bacteriology studying bacteria mycology studying fungus protozoology studying those protists parasitology studying for parasites are frequent living helmets and virology studying viruses good so far all right that was a pretty good general overview i like this chapter one it's interesting it kind of sets the tone and we keep coming back and building on that terminology um chapter three we got specifically to the cell so 3.1 was just a little more background talking a little more about louis pasteur and how he disproved spontaneous generation it's a spontaneous generation is also called abiogenesis genesis the creation bio of life a meaning not from not living things so spontaneous generation was that organisms just arose um and pastor demonstrated that all living things arise from other living things biogenesis so i just sort of expanded a little bit of what we learned in chapter one looking at cells 3.2 uh goes into how did we how did we really figure out the basic unit of like is the cell and what cells are and the cell theory some of the basic points of the cell theory is that all living things are composed of cells either a single cell if you're a single-celled organism or lots and lots of cells and all those cells came from other cells so through cellular replication how we build populations and that the cell is the simplest unit of life and then if we look at the contributions sort of expand our knowledge of what went into developing this i liked in the discussion uh someone brought up the timeline and looking at the length of time between hook first using the term cell robert hook saw cells from quercus from the um the oak tree that that we make cork the corkus is the name that's what quark comes from uh they're very large cells so looking at um at a cork he saw what looked like cells he named them cells and individual units and that term stuck but it took another 200 years before we recognized that it's a cell as a basic unit a living function hi tammy so you came in we're going through our learning objectives and if you have any questions uh just stop me and unmute yourself and jump in while i'm sharing my screen i can't see um the chat or blocks then you see it so just jump in and jump in and mute yourself and ask if you have any questions um so cell theory knowing uh schleider and schwann these were two researchers that uh schleiden recognized that plants are composed of cells juan recognized that animals are composed of cells kind of got together coordinated said hey look living things are all composed of cells uh re mac and virtual this is really interesting um it gives some historical perspective um and shows this sort of thing still goes on in science that was the science is very competitive uh scientists do not always play nice together because you make your reputation by proving something was or you know by disproving someone else's work demonstrating they had errors or they were wrong or taking credit uh in the case of re mac and burchow these two gentlemen actually worked together in the same lab at one time and they had both published but first re mac had published a paper saying all cells derive from previously existing cells he went through to actually um show cell division he was the first one to see recognize and describe cell division that this is how we get more cells from a single cell three years later virgil published similar paper with similar results um and he used the term all cells arise from cells and he was the one who got all the credit he published more widely um by today's standards we would consider this plagiarism because he really took word for word quite a few of re mac's own observations uh the standards and the legal component for plagiarism as theft of ideas in someone else's work had not really been firmly established at this point since the mid-1800s but really virgil gets lots of credit for stuff that he plagiarized directly from rematch and so now textbooks are going back and uh we have the insert in the textbook that talks about this i don't think it's the ethics in in biology but it's uh one of those inserts that talks about this it's quite interesting so yeah you should make sure you you do read that um whereas oh it's science and plagiarism i yeah it is the ion ethics portion um and some of the things that contributed sadly that continue to be an issue that science deals with and overcoming it is part of the reason rematch didn't get credit for that is he was uh jewish and there was a lot of anti-semitism in society at that time and so politically racism raised its ugly head and rimac kind of got screwed in the deal so this is really a point that science and scientific scientific community continues to deal with and struggle with and try to atone for past slides we see a lot of this um with female researchers and we'll learn a little bit out about this when we talk about dna of men taking credit for other people's work so that's just an interesting um insert in there in the ion ethics might want to take a look at the endosymbiotic theory this is another one that's explained really how eukaryotic complex cells the eukaryotes that are complex and have compartmentalization uh that were able to expand and grow larger uh how did they how did that happen evolutionarily uh in the endosymbiont where he talks about how um these larger cells they have separate organelles for energy mitochondria to get energy um or in plants or other organisms you know where they can make their own energy through sunlight those organelles actually are about the same size as bacteria they have similar membrane components to bacteria they have a double membrane so if i was going to engulf something with my membrane through endocytosis and it had a membrane i'd have a double membrane their dna is molecularly more similar in the chloroplasts or chloroplasts and mitochondria have dna and it's more similar to bacterial dna the enzymes that are used replicated are that they contain are more similar to bacterial dna they have their own bacterial ribosomes so when this was first proposed uh back in the 1800s it's kind of pooh-poohed and then it kept coming around and more and more evidence so another example in 1960 a researcher lynn margulies really started amassing evidence and published that you know this really we've got all kind of evidence for it and she was sort of patted on the head and dismissed because you know what's this little girl researcher know turns out once we got the right molecular techniques to look at the dna to look at the ribosomes to look at the mitochondria and the chloroplasts at a molecular level turns out they really are similar to bacteria but they formed a partnership this symbiotic relationship that involved evolved into single organism and those organelles uh so that um that theory now has loads and loads loads of molecular evidence physical evidence the dna the process of the dna being passed on how they replicate your binary fission uh all that support that and we go through a little bit more history with symbol vice this always fascinates me um but washing hands was an earth-shattering revelation discovery at one time that oh look if we wash our hands before we and before we go in into the labor room the babies and the mothers are healthier about that um so some of ice was hand washing jon snow not that jon snow from game of thrones but jon snow father of epidemiology he tracked the source of a cholera outbreak um again pasteur also looked at pasteurization keeping and killing microbes as a way to preserve food and those same microbes are actually able to contribute to disease uh lister made great progress listerine is named in his honor of establishing uh aseptic technique um using using phenol um as a cleaning agent a disinfectant agent in surgery to prevent the spread of germs and then again coke is coke postulates he's the first one to establish a method to connect and prove causation this is the microorganism that causes this disease so those they all contributed to this um to the development of germ theory that it's not bad air that makes us sick um it's not punishment from god that's making us sick it's microbes that cause disease all right so that's background on cells in the cell theory and cells causing disease and three point three into prokaryotic cells 3.4 is all eukaryotic cells we don't go into that but everybody should know that that's us those are our cells so we should know their structures and functions what's new is going into more detail on our bacterial cells and these structures these are going to be very important remember prokaryote no nucleus simple cells we don't have compartments um we have a single cell uh everybody did great on the on the quiz describing cell morphologies our shapes so caucus around uh spheres oxide bacilli are rod shaped so it can be round we can be rod shaped more elongated or we can have spirals so the vibrio are just a curve like a c-shaped curve um or s spherium they're going to be whiskey like a corkscrew um and our spirochetes so the spirulum and the spirochetes the difference are our spirochetes are more flexible and our spirulium are more rooted and we don't actually look at any of those in class but we do talk about them in lecture are spirals and then so morphology is the shape of the individual cell and then the arrangement is how they can group together they might not they might just be single cells but we might have them always divide and stay together in pairs you would put diplo in front of that diplo bacilli they may do that twice and give a group of four cells tetrads they may form chains we use the prefix strepto streptococcus a strip of spherical cells streptobacillus a strip of rod shaped cells uh staphylo is a cluster so if we get big clumps um we really just use staphylococci one thing to be aware of is those terms streptococcus and speculococcus how we write them matters because those are genus names so if the s is capitalized and the word is italicized we're talking about a specific genus of bacteria streptococcus or staphylococcus but those words can also be in regular font not italicized not capitalized and then they are just adjectives they describe a group of cells because we do have other genuses and species that might be spherical cocci that occur in clusters so there's staphylococcus but of the genus micrococcus as an example so so watch how the word is spelled or used because it could indicate a specific organism by genus name or it could just describe the cellular morphology arrangement uh let's see we have a missing bullet here this should be a separate well how prokaryote prokaryotic cells maintain morphology um including during change in changes in asthmatic pressure our cell while we have a nice firm rigid cell wall and that's what allows these cells to maintain their shape all right and we look more at the cell wall in just a minute in a lower bullet osmotic pressure our activity for week two when we talk about um about cell growth looks at osmotic pressure and osmosis but it starts we talk about it in this chapter we talk about it again in growth we're talking about it again in control of growth because osmosis is the movement of water across the cell membrane um and our cell can either take water in um if it's in a hypotonic solution it can lose water if it's in a hypertonic solution or it can just maintain its shape and isotonic in all of these that membrane that cell wall is rigid so the cell keeps its shape what changes is inside that plasma membrane the water we're talking about moving in and out goes into the cytoplasm and so the cell membrane can pull away from the cell wall or it can pressure press up against the cell wall as more water enters the cell um but the cell wall is going to maintain the same shape so what's going on inside the cell could be swelling or shrinking um but that wall is pretty firm so only so much water go in so we'll look at that more in uh activity too but you should have a general idea water always moves for the hypertonic solution so the saltier solution or the solution with more sugar in it we'll go into that in more detail uh structure function you should know the nucleoid region is where we find our dna uh plasmids are extra chromosomal dna ribosomes cytoprotein synthesis are inclusions uh even though we don't have membrane-bound organelles and compartmentalization in bacteria we can actually make little holding temporary holding compartments these can either have a protein exterior they can have a phospholipid monolayer just one layer of phospholipids unlike the membrane that's a bilayer but they hold or store nutrients a lot of times sometimes gases and that storage has to do back with osmosis it water moves toward high concentrations so if i just have a high concentration let's say of glucose inside my cell because hey look i'm in a good energy source while that increase in glucose inside raises the concentration of glucose that makes the inside of the cell hypertonic and would lead to water coming in so to just keep an isotonic environment on either side i can just package those nutrients or package whatever material that is into this separate housing um just to store it to hold on to it so inclusions are just kind of little temporary storage bodies storage units and then endospores we went through the sporulation process we talked about endospores um these are for protection it's a basically a cell going dormant protecting itself builds a little protein coat around the essential pieces the dna maybe a few enzymes and ribosomes and i isolate those off i let the rest of the cell disintegrate i am no longer metabolically active i'm not getting energy i'm not using energy i'm not replicating i'm not doing anything i am dormant until conditions around me improve so until there's food or water or whatever the hazard is around me um is gone i am just going to stay in my little bubble um and then when they come out of the endless floor when environmental conditions are more appropriate and they can come out of their unders and just what we call that germination they return to cell state uh plasma membrane is our phospholipid bilayer membrane transport passive ways that organ molecules get in and out of the cell so diffusion molecules just diffuse from high concentration to low uh no energy required right across the membrane um osmosis is specifically water moving across that membrane you can have facilitated transport which is also passive molecules only move from high concentration to low but through a membrane protein and i can have active transport where i'm going to move molecules against concentration gradient i'm going to require energy i'm going to need energy to do this so i might have membrane proteins that act as pumps or carriers that require atp to function i might use endocytosis where i bend my uh wrap my plasma membrane around what i want to bring in and then bring it into the cell i want to get rid of things i can push them out of the cell through through endos exocytosis group translocation in bacteria is where i'm going to bring in a whole a specific molecule into into the cell um let's see what page is group let's see all those are uh the transport mechanism okay you don't have page numbers so this is in section 3.3 go down away but that plasma membrane known components of the plasma membrane one of the things that students get wrong more often than anything is confusing and misusing the words cell wall cell membrane and glycocalyx make sure you know the differences all cells have a plasma membrane that is the layer that differentiates inside the cell from outside that phospholipid bilayer with embedded proteins bacteria have a cell wall of peptidoglycan it's a cell long protective firm structure that is not metabolically active it serves as a structural support um let's see so the cell wall we have two different types of bacteria they're both made of peptidoglycan those are repeating sugar protein units um that are connected by amino acids i think about this like a railroad so the eating sugar sugar protein nag and nam are like the rails and then they have little amino acid crosslinks little short peptide chain crosslinks holding it together so then just put lots of those next to each other and there's a single layer and stack those on top of each other we get multiple layers gram have fake cell walls lots of layers of peptidoglycan gram negatives have just one or two layers of peptidoglycan and then they have another membrane so they have their plasma membrane that is part of the cell that is not the cell wall it's part of the cell the plasma membrane the cell wall is exterior to that and gram positives lots and lots of layers of peptidoglycan in gram negatives just a couple layers of peptidoglycan with a lipopolysaccharide layer outside i think lipo that's polysaccharide sugars um the lipoportion it's similar to the phospholipid bilayer it's like another membrane that's outside one of the components of that is lipid a a lipopart lipid a is a structural component of that membrane we kill that cell if we give somebody with a gram-negative infection antibiotics the cell dies doesn't put energy into maintaining its organization the outer membrane um and the cell wall it all just falls apart and that lipid a it's free of the cell and it's now toxic so it is an endotoxin that can cause fever um and then we want to know the structure the glycocalyx this is our outer nasal cells can produce this but some do it's an outer jelly-like substance a polysaccharide um and if it's very well organized it's nice and firm and tightly bound to the cell it's called a capsule it's loosely bound less organized it's a slime layer it's the basis for biofilms for things like um black on our teeth are just layers of this all stuck together uh it's a polysaccharide so it's sugar it's sweet it's you know sticks it's sticky so it lets these organisms stick to surfaces and stick to each other uh and our immune system sees this did you have a question jump in if you have questions about any of these we run through them uh fimbriae are just small little um thread-like projections and there's lots of them and used for attachment as well just like the glycocalyx it lets them get kind of tangled up together and so they can form biofilms that way that way or it lets them get tangled into the cilia that's a a lot of bacteria that cause respiratory illnesses we'll have embryo these thread like structures that get interlaced with cilia in our respiratory tract to get established heli is a modified fimbriae it's a single long red-like structure that's used in conjugation with bacteria that conjugation is not sexual reproduction conjugation is just a way for two bacteria to come together and one says hey look i have this cool little gene here this cool little piece of dna i'm gonna make a copy and send it over to you so that pili pulls in one bacteria to the other so they can get close to each other and then share a little piece of dna and you learn more about that in chapter 10 and then flagella bacterial flagella are structurally different from eukaryotic flagella so eukaryotic flagella move in a whip-like motion bacterial flagella are anchored between that cell wall and plasma membrane and they work in a rotor-like fashion rotate so more like a propeller all right so the bacterial structures again we don't go into the eukaryotic structures because we come in assuming that's one of our prerequisites is that you had a biology class that talked about eukaryotes that you know our cell structures so you should know the organelles their structure and function we do when we talk about disease and our immune system we're looking at our cells and the interactions between bacterial cells and our cells so we do need to know be familiar with those organelles so you take a look and review that chapter five the eukaryotes it's our interesting uh interesting make you sperm chapter looking at all the different infections uh i will say if this chapter really grosses you out and you find it just disgusting and horrible you might want to consider a career that doesn't involve this as your daily life a lot of these infections are very very common you're going into vet tech lots of parasites so i was pretty excited about the discussion how how um how y'all got into it um usually get a lot of people they're like ah let me go disinfect myself um so yes watch monsters inside me that's lots of fun so you know our general characteristics characteristics here we are looking at eukaryotic parasites they do have a nucleus they have organelles they are more similar to our cells than they are to bacteria cells because we are all in the same domain of eukaryote eukarya so our general characteristics uh the eukaryotic parasites are protozoans single-celled organisms they do have all the organelles that we have and a nucleus the modes of reproduction we'll talk about the modes of reproduction uh in our eukaryotes we can we can be very complex complex or not so complex many of the protozoans have life cycles that include a trophozoite this is the adult mature stage that feeds so if you think trophic levels in a food chain that has to do with where i feed zoe like zoology the animal this is the feeding animal and the cyst is the dormant stage a lot of times when they're insisted this is how they infect people they're insisted they're present in the water supply in the soil or somewhere that's how we get exposed to them is as a cyst and then when they get into a happy place like our gut they emerge from that cyst to become the feeding organism modes of reproduction uh some of these reproduce sexually some produce asexually asexual would be similar to binary efficient i'm just going to make a copy of my nucleus and the dna and then i'm going to divide so mitosis um so binary fishing because it's not male or female so asexual budding they make a copy of that dna and they round it it just kind of breaks off uh schizogony this was one of the words agony it's a funky word this happens with a lot of these organisms rather than one organism make it make a copy of the nucleus and dna uh go through cytokinesis divide into two and those two grow but a lot of these organisms can ramp up infections really quickly because a single organism well that's not a big threat your immune system is not going to pay attention to that but its nucleus will start to divide make a copy of the dna it will have two nuclei then those will each make a copy you'll have four nuclei those will make a copy your immune system sees one organism ever don't care not a big deal uh and then all of a sudden cytokinesis happens and you know if i had eight nuclei in there i now have eight individuals that are going to go through that process so they can increase their numbers really quickly that process um but that's nuclear division without cytokinesis until i have until i'm multinucleated have lots of nuclei um so those are all asexual you're going to have sexual reproduction which is conjugation talk about conjugation uh in bacteria which is just vertical gene transfer i'm just going to move genes it is not sexual reproduction in bacteria in prokaryotes and eukaryotes conjugation is there is a male and a female or a production of male gametes and female gametes that come together um produce effloyd gametes and those two gametes use to form a diploid new organism so male female coming together um so there's true sexual reproduction with conjugation in prokaryotes and protists are and yeah and protists sorry button bacteria conjugation is just the term that we use to exchange pieces of dna horizontally so make sure you know which one you're looking at when you see that word conjugation and then the reproduction some of these organisms are able to do both sexual and asexual reproduction so there's another organism around we can have sexual reproduction each organism contributes some dna but if not yeah i'll just go ahead and do asexual reproduction uh the diseases we went through these everybody described them so if you just go down this list uh just quick checklist to know which organisms um i had to do the breakdown of what domain what kingdom their whole taxonomic classification the really important part to remember domain kingdom and then this so a lot of those the words that they use is describe what their mode of motility is so remember that entamoeba nigleria um they move through pseudopods they're amoeboid so amnivoid that's streaming of the cytoplasm and then pulling the rest of the cell structures along behind so they're amoeboid non-motile or sporozoan uh parasites are plasmodium which causes malaria cryptosporidium this is one of the most common causes of gastrointestinal disorders that's associated with public swimming pools uh toxoplasma this is the the parasite the protists that's passed through cat feces through mammal feces this is why pregnant women are told not to clean the litter box because that can pass through feces this is very very common it's probably everybody who's ever owned a cat or a cat or dog has been exposed to this has had this is immune to it experienced no symptoms um as adults as children this is not an issue but it can cause a lot of serious problems across blindness it can cause a lot of health issues for developing fetuses uh including inducing a spontaneous abortion or fetal then resulting in fetal death so even though this is really this non-issue for any living organism for fetuses it's a problem and that's this is why for fetal development so this is why pregnant women are told don't go change the litter box stay away from it because won't bother them and they probably have antibodies they're probably to its impacts but developing fetuses are not we only have one ciliate that causes disease so balantidium this is our one organism with cilia uh and then the flagellates those that move with flagella we've got giardia trichomonas trypanosoma uh so if we remember see trichomonas trichomonas vaginalis remember the full name for that one oh there we go that causes vaginitis um our trypanosomes these cause sleeping sacrifice sleeping sickness uh giardia this is really really common for people who are very outdoors oriented go camping a lot or hiking this is also called hikers disease causes again gastrointestinal disorder diarrhea comes from contaminated water usually fresh water sources contaminated with species so mountain streams if there are arms nearby any kind of streams if you're out hiking in western north carolina beautiful wonderful mountains with nothing and no nothing anywhere it must be fresh clean water well there are pig farms in those hills and water runs downstream and that's where we get infected but it's very common and so if you are going into nursing you'll see a lot of these because many of them are very common usually not as we get to when we get to our immune system you'll all be very happy to know we're probably exposed to all sorts of these but they don't usually cause problems i mean we're we have a very high load of the parasites with all of these we call them infestations and how serious it is how bad the infection and symptoms are has to do with the load how many of them do we have we're usually exposed to these in small numbers all over the place so those are our protists 5.2 we look at our parasitic worms our helmets which these are covered these are these are macro i don't need um a microscope to see tinia to see a tapeworm that can grow into up to three meters the reason these are uh covered in microbiology is because the way we get infected is usually with the eggs um and so microscopically and then they grow so the morphology the names the common names of the groups tell you the morphology we have nematodes which are round worms um trematodes which are flukes kind of leak shaped and our sestos are the tapeworms those are the morphologies that we're looking at the terms monoisius and dioecious well these trip people up because they're not what they sound like monoisius one um one body dioecious two bodies um and so what we tend to think of um mono is one monoesius have one body with both sex organs so monoisia says one body has male and female sexual reproduction organs uh we would could use the term hermaphrodite but that refers to a specific part of how they if they can reproduce with themselves and others and then dioecious i have two bodies i have males in one body and females another so they're separate um our reproductive organs are separate in separate organs or separate individuals uh and then in our discussion we went through some of the different um more common infections and the reason these are here these are brought up is because these are these are the ones really in health care you're going to see very commonly um asterisk is a really common infection that we see especially in poorer communities and in migrant communities went through enterovis so our pinworms are really disgusting kids get them all over the place uh trichonella this is why you always get to go cook your pork make sure you check the thermometer and the meat thermometer is above 165 degrees this is when we get to eating undercooked meat um and that a lot of people chose recalculus because dracula so yeah read over the different descriptions of these that you did in the discussion they don't all come up but and it best way to do this is really you know draw the table draw the table group them so that kind of re have some idea if you see them you remember if you know a couple of each one if you just know one or two it sort of helps you narrow it down um so if you don't see one you recognize pick the other answer and our flukes flatworms are flukes uh the biggest thing with flukes they have really really complex life cycles many of them have like two or three intermediate hosts that they have to go through in a specific order to reach um reproductive maturity and then our sestoes are our tapeworms he's pretty familiar with tapeworms we just now have a specific name for it a little more detail so i would suggest yeah just fill out that that table the blank table that i included um [Music] motility what group they fall in these are all our eukaryotes so are they helmets are they protists uh cmnr fungus in our fungus mycology we see mica we see this prefix a lot and usually we're going to associate it with fungus but our mycobacterium aren't fungus they're bacteria uh so make sure you get the whole word don't just look for that prefix again just like with pro so mycology is the study of that a fungus and a mycosis is a disease or disorder caused by a fungal infection then we have fungus that fall into the category of yeast which are single-celled or molds that are multicellular the components the terms high feed if we have multi-cellular these are the long threads so those are the hyphy easiest way to picture these are just think of bread molds exhaust oxy red mold the height here are the fuzzy threads these can be septate meaning there are lots of individual cells separated with a cell wall a whole string of cells or we can have non-septate where there's not a cell wall there's maybe a little part of a cell wall between them that just makes it easier to move nutrients back and forth between along the whole length of the hyphae pseudo height here those that have partial cell wall going through and if we get a whole mass of those high fee together it's mycelium and the mycelium that's when we see um a whole fruiting body our whole body of fungus that we're looking at that's the mycelium so it's all these hyphens back to tight together and then our uh many fungus are dimorphic and that dye two and morph morphology shape so dimorphic a lot of fungus can either be yeast single celled or they can become molds multicellular and spread out and a lot of times it's environmental triggers like temperature or ph that will determine which shape they're going to be and this is important because there are a lot of uh infections that we deal with in health care like aspergillus which can be a single cell a yeast and we can inhale that or inhale the spore um and when that gets into our lungs or so in our body says oh i'm pretty happy here i am now going to grow and so it will become this multicellular form form big globules in the lungs so so some can occur either way and usually how we're going to be infected is through a single cell uh either a yeast a single cell fungus or a spore getting to spores again we're going to see that to we sauce 4 with endospore and we talk about bacteria a lot of times casually we'll use that term spore but we mean an endospore when we're talking about bacteria in bacteria and endospore is a protective structure when we're talking about fungus spores are reproductive structures okay so these are reproductive they're going to spread through the air and then they're going to germinate into complete fungus on those cells let's see the cell wall of fungus so our bacteria have peptidoglycan our plants have cellulose our fungus their cell wall is made of chitin and chitin is a carbohydrate like same with celluloses and plants and so cell membranes um these are eukaryotes so all of these have phospholipid bilayer for their cell membrane um animal cells have cholesterol as part of the that cell wall cell membranes uh animal membranes have cholesterol and what that cholesterol does is it maintains the consistency so our cell membranes are kind of fluid they have the consistency of olive oil and cholesterol does that in our cells fungal cells have ergosterol they have a different type of sterol that has that function of maintaining the consistency of the cell membrane and the reason we point out these differences uh is because if we're going to target these with a medication meant to eradicate them we don't want to harm our own cells so we have to find where our cells because these are all eukaryotes so our cells are very similar so we have to look for differences so that we can come up with ways to eliminate them that target these cells without hurting us again discussion group broke these down into the different some of the different uh different molds and the infections they cause candida albicans this is the number one cause of yeast infections of fungal infections um in humans is candida albicans it causes uh vaginal fungal infections oral thrush all sorts and this happens when we get rid of our good bacteria this is part of our normal fauna which is just kept at low numbers until we eliminate it by taking antibiotics we will eliminate our bacteria uh pathogens what fungus do all right so that um that really coming up with tables looking over those discussions that's going to be the most helpful portion for chapter five and look we're already at 12 36 let me go over a little bit um so biochemistry of the genome deoxyribonucleotides dna the structure of our nucleotides are building block monomers a five carbon sugar deoxyribose attached to a phosphate and a nitrogenous base so those bases in dna adenine guanine thymine cytosine um and the way they pair that anti-parallel structure means we've got stack those one on top of the other and then we make another stack but in the opposite direction so anti-parallel uh rna ribonucleotides are rna ribose is the five sugar with a phosphate attached and the nucleotides of the nitrogenous bases associated with rna are adenine guanine cytosine we have uracil instead of thymine so thymine is never going to be found on rna uh and actually what i think i'm going to do is jump to the exercise you did to the to activity one and we'll finish that because that's going to go through most everything on here um and the portions it doesn't should be pretty familiar to you anyway just replication replication make a copy so dna has to make a copy transcription translation the different types of mutations um so let's let's jump to let's jump to the to activity one we'll go through that i think that will be um more helpful for going through these two chapters so i have to open that first let me grab that file i thought i had that open already okay sure um all right there's our activity uh all right so this is when we talk about anti-parallel this is what we mean we stack we stack one set of nucleotides going from the three to the five direction the other from the five to the three what that means is if i look at my um at my sugar right so i have a pentose i have a five carbon sugar and the way i think about that five carbon sugar is that it's um kind of pentagon shaped and i count the carbons one two three four and then the fifth carbon is actually off the top five um so i by counting those one two three oh there's my third carbon so as i i'm not gonna keep folding these as i stack these to make my nucleotide the threes are always on the bottom the five is always above it so this one runs three to five the antiparallel one five to three the sugar would be upside down so if i counted those sugars again one two three four five is on the bottom now so five to three so i'm running one set this way the other set that's not exactly a very good hole so they're next to each other like this and then connecting in between are my bases so that's what the anti-parallel is the sugars run in a different direction and then my base pairing thymine and dna thymine always pairs with adenine cytosine always pairs with guanine if you think of this like a puzzle that's the only the only piece that'll fit so here's my anti-parallel with complementary base pairing this is my original dna number one everybody tries to make this so much harder than it is replication in dna replication what would happen is each of these would separate and then my dna polymerase would come in and take this strand here and happy it paste it here and add new bases the matching bases um so what replication would do is oh i separated this out and separate those two strands because that's what my helicase does is it unwinds and separates the two strands and then dna polymerase comes in and says okay there's the three so i'm going to start at the 5 prime end and i'm going to match t gets an a he gets an a c gets a g and i'm just going to do complementary base pairing and replicate this the original make a copy dna polymerase is going to come in and say oh here we go i can only work this way three to five so i'm gonna do this in the opposite direction but that's what i'm gonna do when i replicate this it means i copy it i make two copies and everybody will usually answer this right semi-conservative it's because this was the original dna up here and this was the original dna up here so my two new copies each contain i have conserved f semi half of the original molecule in my new molecule in each of my new molecules so that's just replication i make a copy um people want to make that harder and use different base pairing and try to build rna but replication is used because when i need to go through binary fission for a bacteria i need to increase my number of cells well to have all the directions i need all my dna so i need to make a complete copy of my dna so now i have i started with this much dna i make a copy so i can divide it this cell gets some the cell gets some everybody has all the dna so that process happens every time we need to get new cells we're actually taking one of the originals and then matching it so we're not left with the original dna strand at all right right because in so in binary fission i'm gonna have one bacteria and then when i'm done i'm gonna have two right so i'm never actually gonna have like mom and dad and then here's baby or you know mom is gonna have a new offspring mom's gonna make a copy of everything inside her and split into two okay so we're not copying that strand we're just kind of separating it and moving them and then matching the bases in the opposite direction to each one right because we're not left yeah so we're copying we are making a copy of the original molecule we're making two copies of the original molecule so that we start with one we end with two but the way we make the copy is we split this into two and we use it as a template so a template is just like it's a pattern that's what i thought but i i thought we were gonna split it and then copy this line and then make the other half to go with it and that didn't make any sense to me so it doesn't matter if we're using if we're splitting the three to five and the five to three we're copying both of them regardless so i don't have to choose one over the other right we're gonna split them in this one so the three three to five becomes a template to build the five to three and the 5 to 3 from the original becomes a template build this and the reason we have to build the opposite that we can't just make a direct copy is because of the enzymes so enzymes can work one way and only one way and our enzyme dna polymerase can only read this going three to five and it can only if it sees a t it can only put an a there so it couldn't you know make another t make another t make an exact copy it has to put the complementary base pair and then this other one because it can only read three to five it has to build this one in the other direction so here it jumps on it latches here and says okay add this and this and this and this and this on this one it says here's what i'm here's what i'm using is my template i have to start here and go this way and then the lagging strand comes in yes because in so in we'll look at our chromosomes because we're used to them in their threads when the helicase opens up the dna it doesn't open the whole thing and leave it there it opens a little at a time so once you're three to five it can go zoom as it opens this other one it's like oh i can only do this because that's the only part i have access to oh now i can do this because i have access there right so that's why we get that lagging strand and then here dna to protein so our central dogma from we take dna we transcribe it to rna we translate that to a protein and we do that through complementary base pairing only now when i have an a in my dna i can't get a t when i make my rna because t's don't come in already i can only get my u's so here if it's we have the template strand which is used as a template to build rna with complementary base pairing um the other strand so here this tells me this is my template strand so here's my template strand this is what i'm going to build my rna from this is called the coding strand which sometimes trips people up because wait if that's the coding strand isn't that the one i'm going to use and i explain in the in those hints why it's or in the follow-up why it's called that because when i build my rna from this template with complementary base pairing um the rna has complementary base pairs so it ends up with these base pairs so the rna looks identical to the coding strand but that's not what i built it from because that's not how rna polymerase works it can only match complements so but if i want to do a quick check did i make my rna correctly if this is my template i can look at this strand and say oh it should be identical except i'm going to put a u here so it's a good quick check but that's why that's called the coding strand so here this question asks what do you do first you transcribe first i have to get rna so my t becomes an a a my c is a g my g becomes a c my a now has u so c u c and then a gets a u c gets a g g still gets an a and then i would translate by going to the codon table and looking up those codons here this we say that the code is degenerate we have multiple options for getting the same amino acid there are 64 possible combinations so if we jump down and look at this table um we see oh there's a lot of repetition and if you look closely where you see that repetition is as long as i have the right first two bases i'm going to get the right amino acid so the fidelity or how true i have to be to the codon degenerates from the first to the second to the third base by the time i get to that third base whatever throw anything in there i'm still going to be okay that gives us some protection from mutations so i can have a mutation and still be okay those silent mutations it doesn't change anything so that gives us protection against mutations in the dna and also changes in the rna because rna polymerase when i transcribed this dna polymerase had proofreading ability so it could go back and correct its mistakes rna polymerase doesn't so if it makes a mistake we've got a little bit of protection against having the wrong amino acid in place uh this one's not directly addressed in the book i just like to see what people think as they go through there primary reason dna is a big giant huge double-stranded molecule our dna contains all the instructions for every single thing our cells do all the time or that they can do throughout our lifetime we don't need all that all the time we need one protein right now i need this enzyme to do this job right now so rna is a smaller molecule instead of all of the chromosomes all of the dna it's going to make a copy of this much of it it's going to transcribe this piece and it's single stranded so it's free to move out of the nucleus out into the cytoplasm where i can build my protein we don't want our dna jumping out into the cytoplasm all the time we want to protect it because it's important it's important stuff so it stays in the nucleus it doesn't go anywhere else and that's to protect it so we use this intermediate to get out to the ribosome let's see so our codons are found on our messenger rna and i go through and i recite this every time my messenger rna has the message in code that tells me how to build my protein so i know i have to go to the codon table with my messenger rna codons these are my triplets of nitrogenous bases that tell me which amino acid i get so that's the mrna the anticodon anti-not this is not the codon this is not what's in the table don't use this what this is right so the trna it's got it's rna so it's made the same way so it has those base pairs and what the anticodon is it's the complement to the codon but the reason is because it works like a lock and key right those compliments my c can only connect with g nothing else so here's my strand of mrna and my three codons well here's all these trnas they don't know what to do so any one of them could come in there but only one matches only one fifth so the anticodon is the correct fit so that i get the right amino acid in the right place and then our rna this is kind of confusing but the ribosome is actually made the ribosome the site of protein synthesis is made out of rna wrapped around proteins it's like oh boom which came first the ribosome and the ribosomes made of ribosomal rna and proteins that are made at the ribosomes yeah that's that's what it's a structural component of a ribosome my ribosome has rna and it has proteins and that's that's what makes those those two subunits um so that's just a structural component of it okay uh it's a transcription translation the difference everybody go through did that well uh that part of the part of the ribosome um protein something whatever you want to say oh strong bones and teeth drink your milk yeah hair and nails and structural the bacteria don't have any of those things the really really critical role of proteins are their enzymes so enzymes speed up chemical reactions um and metabolism the sum total of all the chemical reactions in a cell every single chemical reaction that takes place in every cell all the cells in our body every bacteria all those chemical reactions are sped up by enzymes so without those enzymes metabolism wouldn't happen at a fast enough rate to sustain life so we need those enzymes so we need those proteins for anything that we do okay all right so our puzzle this this is just a fun puzzle in this chapter but this becomes really important that you understand this when we talk about viruses in eukaryotes in bacterial living organisms we have double stranded dna one strand is the template strand and that strand always makes rna we always have trna that's also built from somewhere from dna same way but this carries my amino acids brings them in this is just here to trip you up and try to get you to translate the anticodon this is the one that we want to use on the table to get our amino acids so we always work in this direction dna the rna amino acids when we get to viruses viruses think this is a fun game we have iris and viruses that come in in viruses we don't have mnt rna what we call is positive and negative rna so we have viruses that might have this strand of rna and from this they can directly make a protein or they might come in and with this strand of rna like hiv a retrovirus and make the dna so if they have this then they can build this strand of dna and if they're that they can build this strand of dna so they can work either direction they can come in with this strand the negative messenger rna that doesn't tell me how to build a protein but because a complementary base pairing if i have that i know how to make that i know the base pairs and then i can make my protein so bacteria can come in with one strand of dna and still get it can come in with this strand of dna and still get to here right you just have to make this strand first and then this strand and then they make their protein or they can come in with this strand and go go directly to protein or to mrna to a protein so viruses play this game so not understanding the base pairing so here no matter what set of faces you have you can work up and down so even if i know this dna well i know it's complement here here so i can tell you what the mrna is going to be i can tell you what the trna is going to look like even though it's the anticodon and i don't need it i can tell you what it is because of base pairing so any of these i can just work on all i had to do from here was say well trna has the anticodon the opposite base pairing so i can move up here and do this and then from here i know what dna code and what dna triplets would do that so that was just going up and down between the lines until you filled it all in but you really don't need that one uh and i think the sickle cell i think this is really interesting because you think of these diseases they must be horrible awful all kind of changes and it's one single one single amino acid that changed right there instead of glutamate we got valine and how do we do that well here's glutamate gaa or gag all i need to change that is get a u by mistake one little base pair mistake look at that whole trickle down explosion of um related problems because of it one of the questions in the discussion was about why bacteria have so many different methods of horizontal gene transfer so vertical gene transfer is parent to offspring parentals from generation to generation horizontal i can't go and say like gee here you want some of my jeans i have some these are good i got good genes let me make a copy and give them to you um but bacteria can do that they can say oh here's a good gene i'm gonna make a copy and share it so we have all those different methods that they can share those that you discuss the four different ways the reason i went to is because uh bacterial replication is cloning so every bacteria of the same species would be an identical clone other than the background rate of mutation which is really low unless they had some method to get variation whereas eukaryotes we have sexual reproduction mom dad we get a mix of genes every time there's an offspring every new offspring has new genes um so we have all kind of variation in populations so bacteria get that variation through gene transfer and that variation is important because if every organism is exactly identical genetically then they're all susceptible to the same threats so they might all be fine as clones in one environment but if the environment changes to something that's lethal they're all going to die whereas if there's variation they're not so if a few of the organisms have a resistance to antibiotics and most of them don't but if you have that well now i'm going to give them take an antibiotic because i want to kill that bacteria some are going to survive as long as there's variation but if they were all clones they would all die so if one has a mutation that gives it the benefit of like hey look that antibiotic doesn't bother me let me make a copy of that part of my gene and make a little plasmid here and i'm gonna share it um so that's why they have all that dude they have to introduce their they have to find a way to mix up their their genetics to get variation since their reproduction doesn't their replication doesn't do that um and then the operon that one of my students i thought came up with the most brilliant analogy like what's an operon why is this so complicated because you don't need all your genes all the time just like you don't need so he feeds to an app on a phone you would just use up all your resources all your minutes all your data plan and you would use up all your battery life if you ran every app on your phone all the time so the way and that would do the same thing bacteria or any cell would just use up all its energy if it just expressed all its genes all the time so this is just an on off switch so opera i don't need this right now i'm not going to use it and so what it does when the environment is right but i need this now oh lactose is present here's my lactose my inducer it's present i need this now so let me combine with my regulator it'll fall off this is my rna polymerase now i can go and make these are my genes rna polymerase makes messenger rna so that i can make the protein that digests lactose so i can use that for an energy source lactose isn't really abundant glucose is more abundant so i want the genes that make that break down glucose all the time because that's going to be my most abundant sugar source but if all of a sudden i find i have lactose instead i'm going to turn those off and i'm going to come make my enzymes that break down lactose but once lactose is all gone right we break down this lactose too that lactose is all gone and now this comes back in here and shuts off my operon it's it really is like a roadblock here now my rna polymerase can't go down and transl transcribe my rna so i'm not going to make that so it's really i switch so i can be energy efficient i'm only going to make the proteins the enzymes that i need right now and when i don't need them i'm going to turn this on so we have constitutive genes those are the ones i always need to do this i always need to make these molecules there always are they have repressible genes these are ones that i usually need like glucose is usually present i usually need to have my glucose enzymes so that i can get energy um but if glucose isn't present i'm not going to make those so i can repress those and then inducible well lactose is not always around so i really don't need to have the enzymes making those enzymes if that food source isn't available uh so i induce them i turn them on only if lactose is present uh alright any any other questions there was something and i can't i can't find it in my cards now about i thought i'd written it down but i can't find it something has single stranded so when we get to viruses in chapter six we'll talk more about single-stranded dna because viruses have that let me see if um who else has a single strand of dna yeah it should be viruses have single-stranded some some viruses viruses either have rna or dna and some have double stranded and some have single stranded okay maybe that's what i read somewhere so to yeah to that because we usually have in bacteria it's double stranded but it's in a single ring so it's one ring but it's still two strands okay okay where we have 46 chromosomes or thread like dna um so did that going over that i i know this is a lot especially if it's been a while since you've learned any of this and then you have to you know yeah i didn't remember any of this from when i took this class like well i'm not not all of it but i took this class about 12 years ago and it was not i don't remember this stuff being in there i mean maybe it was and i did better back when i was younger but um kind of think i think my only other question was a lab question that's not even on this test um but maybe you would know the answer to it while i have you um i see that we're not doing um like staining techniques and stuff that must be just a lab thing but um i was trying to remember the uh capsule staining and what i read was um some sort of a red dye but this says nigroson i thought it was in one of your quizzes but maybe it was one of the lab quizzes it was probably in the in the lab quiz um and there's there's actually two different ways to do a capsule stain where one uh stains the capsule one color and the cell another but the capsule with nigris and it actually repels it so you end up with a instant it's a a negative stain so usually you stain the organism and the and you see the organism against a white background the negative stain what happens is that capsule repels the stain so you see a black background it looks like looking at a starry night because the organisms are are white the organisms are all clear that's what the nigrasim does with the negative stain okay so for our for our class we're not using the red one as the primary we're using the nigrason then because i think what i found on google and what i got wrong on one of the quizzes i think it was niagara sent on the quiz but what i had found under google was some red one or something so i just wanted to make sure i had the right it was uh yeah the other one we used yeah with copper sulfate with the blue okay so that's not how we're okay yeah so um and methyl blue with water okay um and i have i actually i've got a spreadsheet that i actually probably have that the spreadsheet with the different stains and it says you know we we do this alternative but here's the other thing and i i don't know if uh if your instructor put it in your classroom but i'll put it in the lab classroom but i'll put it and i'll put it into our um our lecture classroom i'll post that we're coming coming up in our next unit we're going to talk about microbial growth which is really just going to go into detail on a lot of the different things that you're doing in lab because you're growing bacteria in lab um so there'll be a lot of a lot of coordination on that you know what you're doing in lab what you're reading about and doing in lab with that chapter so on the test that um that we're taking in this class we're going to have a portion where we have to like explain two things i guess we get to choose from four things but there's two things that we have to explain the whole process of right so there are four questions you can pick any three to answer you can answer the fourth as a bonus um and they're on different you know there's some compare and contrast one's a compare and contrast think about the the cell wall i asked about the cell wall i asked about you think i could remember what i'm going to ask you couldn't you so oh if you look at the discussion questions i pull a lot from the discussion questions so there's probably something about [Music] prokaryotes how would you identify prokaryote versus eukaryote maybe something about the differences there um maybe label the lac yeah label the lac operon here's the picture here's your picture of that lac operon label the parts uh and i can't remember what the fourth one is but gotcha okay i think that's it i think i'm pretty good on it so i'll probably take it later on tonight um i think it yeah it becomes available at midnight tonight i think so it's yeah it's friday till friday till sunday so you have all weekend to take it awesome okay well i think i'm good thank you so much all right you're welcome thank you email if you have any other questions i'll post the recording of this um i will yeah post the once it processes takes a while to process but it'll be up probably in a couple hours it'll be in the classroom thank you all right thank you you