Overview
This lecture covers the evolution of complex societies in the Americas and Oceania up to the 16th century, focusing on the political, social, and religious developments of the Aztecs, Incas, North American peoples, and Pacific Island societies.
Major Themes in the Americas and Oceania
- American and Oceanic societies developed in isolation with few domesticated animals and no metallurgy or written language.
- Societies ranged from hunter-gatherers to complex empires like the Aztecs and Incas.
- Archaeological evidence, oral traditions, and European accounts form the historical record due to lack of indigenous writing.
Mesoamerica: Toltecs and Aztecs
- Toltecs settled at Tula and influenced later cultures with warfare and urbanism, declining by 1175 CE.
- Mexica (Aztecs) settled at Tenochtitlan, built chinampas (floating gardens) for agriculture.
- Aztec empire formed tributary relationships, requiring surrounding peoples to pay taxes.
- Social hierarchy emphasized soldiers and warrior classes, while women’s roles focused on childbearing and domestic tasks.
- Priests maintained calendars and conducted rituals, including human sacrifice to please gods.
- Religion centered on gods like Tezcatlipoca (life/death), Quetzalcoatl (arts), and Huitzilopochtli (war/sun).
North American Societies
- Pueblo and Navajo practiced maize agriculture and lived in permanent dwellings by 700 CE.
- Iroquois Confederacy comprised multiple tribes in the eastern woodlands.
- Mound-building peoples constructed ceremonial mounds for various purposes.
- Trade occurred along river routes, despite the absence of written records.
Andean South America and the Inca Empire
- Early societies included the Kingdoms of Chucuito and Chimú, cultivating potatoes and herding llamas/alpacas.
- The Inca Empire expanded from Cusco under Pachacuti and used khipu (knotted cords) for record keeping.
- Inca administration relied on hostages, colonization, and a road network for communication.
- Society was highly stratified, with aristocrats, priests, and communal land-owning peasants.
- Religion featured ancestor worship, Sun god Inti, and creator Viracocha; sacrifices were usually animals or produce.
Societies of Oceania
- Australian Aboriginals remained nomadic foragers; New Guinea developed swine herding and root crops.
- Pacific Islanders settled almost all islands, engaged in fishing, cultivation, and long-distance trade.
- Population growth led to social classes and small island empires.
- Religion involved priests as mediators to gods of war/agriculture, with ceremonial sites called marae.
Key Terms & Definitions
- Chinampa — man-made agricultural island used by the Aztecs for crop cultivation.
- Khipu — system of knotted cords for record keeping in Inca society.
- Marae — ceremonial precinct or temple found in Polynesian society.
- Tributary relationship — system where subject peoples pay taxes to an empire for protection.
Action Items / Next Steps
- Reread the textbook chapter.
- Writing assignment: answer three questions comparing societies and identifying causes for differences and vulnerabilities (see end of transcript for prompts).
- Prepare to compare and contrast Aztec, Inca, and Pacific Island societies for discussion or written response.